turn EXJJBRB UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA } JOHN HENRf NASH LIBRARY SAN FRANCISCO PRESENTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA ROBERT GORDON SPROUL, PRESIDENT. BY" * MR.ANDMRS.MILTON S.RAV CECILY, VIRGINIA AND ROSALYN RAY RAY OIL BURNER COMPANY MODERN TYPE DISPLAY AND THE USE OF TYPE ORNAMENT. MODERN TYPE DISPLAY AND THE USE OF TYPE ORNAMENT WRITTEN AND PUBLISHED BY HENRY T. WYSE, 5 CRAIGHOUSE TERRACE, EDINBURGH, 1911. PREFACE. WRITERS of a former age now somewliat remote dedicated tlieir books to tJie "gentle reader" hoping to bespeak liis favour by kind and conciliatory words. Authors of a later date have allowed this fashion to fall into disuse, and yet the writer is still as dependent upon the reader as ever. The two together produce a collaboration which should be mutually helpful. In this preface the author desires to indicate his views, and to apologise for the errors of omission and commission w//ich lie knows in his heart can hardly escape the notice of the critical reader, no matter /tow gentle he may be. Tlie autlwr occupies a privileged position in that though he enjoys unlimited freedom of speech, he is not subject to immediate contradiction. He hastens to assure the reader that if lie seems dictatorial, it is a fault of style rather than of spirit or intention. It is not to be expected that the principles and especially the practice illustrated in a book dealing with that debatable quality taste, should be accepted with anything like unanimity by those whose daily business is type-display. This book has been written with the full consciousness that in stating the case for Modern type-display and the use of type-ornament, the exposition is not a complete one. Such a complete statement could only be made by a universal genius in the printing art, and such has yet to be found. Other methods tlian tJwse given here will find other exponents. The aim of the work is to call the reader s attention to some possibilities in the arrangement of type and ornament. To do this satisfactorily, it was necessary to recount in a brief way the history of written and printed- alphabets, and to say something of the con- struction of type-ornaments and their combinations. Mitch of tlie matter included had to be obtained from botJi ancient and modern books on tlic subject, a list and acknowledgment of which appears on page viii. The _first seven plates of early printing are here reproduced by kind permission of the Keeper of Printed Books of the British Museum, and If. Rae Macdonald, Esq., to both of whom the author renders liis grateful thanks. He hopes that some of the methods suggested may appeal to liis readers as being at least different from, if not better than, tlic nsnal trade practice. That mnch misused word artistic has been avoided in tJie book, which is concerned with the practical questions of clearness and legibility, rather than with anything fan- tastic or striking. The claim of ornamental enrichment has of course been admitted, but only in its legitimate place. The inclusion of advertisements of type, paper, and ink as plates in the book requires no apology. The volume was called into being for the express purpose of influencing type-display, and is not meant to be an academic production which has no connection with everyday printing. H. T. IV. J Craighoitse Tcrmcc, Edinburgh, jotli November IQTI. CONTENTS. PAGE PREFACE ........ fv. CONTENTS - - - vi. LIST OF PLATES - - vii. BlBLIOGRAPHIA - viii. CHAPTER I. The History of the Alphabet 9 II. The Early Printers - -32 III. The Early British Typefounders - 42 IV. Analysis of Type Faces - 48 V. The Subject-matter of Advertisements - 82 VI. Some Principles of Type Display - - 87 VII. The Design and Combination of Type Ornaments - 94 VIII. Harmony of Colour in the Use of Printing Papers and Inks - - 98 LIST OF PLATES. " Forty-two-line Bible," Gutenberg, Mainz, 1456 I. " Bonifacii Papae Liber," Schoffer, Gernsheim, 1473 II. " Hypnerotomachia Poliphili," Aldus, Venice, 1499 IIIo. "Opere Volgari," Soncino, Fano, 1503 III6. "The Dictes or Sayengis," Caxton, Westminster, 1477 IV. " Latin Psalter," Caxton, Westminster, 1480-3 V. "Higden's Polychronicon," de Worde, Westminster, 1495 VI. "Comoediae Sex," Pynson, London, 1495 VII. Type Display without Ornaments. Two founts, four sizes. Black Ink. White Paper VIII. Type Display without Ornaments. One fount, one size. Different widths of margins. Black Ink. Paper "Antique Wove" IX. Type Display without Ornaments. One fount one size. Contrast of Capitals and Lowercase letters - X. Type Display with Ornaments. One fount, four sizes, Capitals only. Two coloured Inks. Paper Grey "Silurian Wove" XI. Type Display with Ornaments. One fount, five sizes. Two coloured Inks. Paper White "M.F. Printing" XII. Type Display with Ornaments. Four founts, three sizes. Two coloured Inks. Paper White "M.F. Printing" - XIII. Type Display with Ornamental Border. Three founts, four sizes. Two coloured Inks. Paper "Silurian Wove" - XIV. Type Display without Ornaments. One fount, four sizes. Black Ink. Paper Cream "Antique Laid" XV. Type Display without Ornaments. One fount, five sizes. Black Ink. Paper "Antique Wove" - XVI. Type Display with Ornaments. Two founts, seven sizes. Two coloured Inks. Paper- Bramble "Rideau Cover" XVII. Pomegranate Ornaments, Diapers, and Borders. One coloured Ink. Paper Primrose "Camber Cover" - XVIII. Type Display with Ornaments. Two founts, four sizes. Black Ink. Paper White "Camber Cover" - XIX. Patterns composed of repeated Thistle units. One coloured Ink. Paper Birch "Rideau Cover" - XX. Patterns composed of Thistle units, Diapers, and Borders. One coloured Ink. Paper Birch "Rideau Cover" XXI. Type Display with Ornaments. Three founts, six sizes. Black Ink. Paper White "Camber Cover" - - - XXII. Diapers, or All-over Patterns, Geometric and Floral. One coloured Ink. Paper Primrose "Camber Cover" - XXIII. vii LIST OF PLATES (contd.). Borders, Geometric and Floral. One coloured Ink. Paper Bramble " Rideau Cover" - XXIV. Panels and Tail Pieces. Rose, Thistle, and Spiral units. One coloured Ink. Coloured Paper XXV. Christmas Cards composed of Type and Ornaments. Two coloured Inks. Paper Toned "M.F. Printing" XXVI. Type Display without Ornaments. Three founts, three sizes. One coloured Ink. Paper " Glazed Amber" XXVII. Letter Headings. Type and Ornaments. Two coloured Inks. Paper "Imperial Linen" XXVIII. Type Display. Three founts, three sizes. Two coloured Inks. Paper "Imperial Linen" XXIX. Menu and Invitation Cards. Type and Ornaments. One coloured Ink Paper "Glazed Amber" XXX. Title Page. Two coloured Inks. Paper Toned "M.F. Printing" - - XXXI. Eleven Ornaments. Vine and Rose. One coloured Ink. Coloured Paper XXXII. Programme. Type and Ornaments. Black Ink. Coloured Paper XXXIII. Book Plates. Type and Ornaments. One coloured Ink. Paper Cream 'Antique Laid" - XXXIV. Programme Covers. Type and Ornaments. One coloured Ink. Paper " Dark Apricot Art " - - XXXV. Rough Composition Sketches. Type only. One coloured Ink. Paper "Antique Wove" ..... XXXVI. Rough Composition Sketches. Type and Ornaments. One coloured Ink. Paper " Antique Wove" - XXXVII. Patterns composed of Shamrock type units. One coloured Ink. Paper "Dark Apricot Art" - XXXVIII. Ornamental Initials. One coloured Ink. Paper " Antique Laid " XXXIX. Type Display, set by the Monotype. Black Ink. Coloured Paper XL. BIBLIOGRAPHIA. 1. A History of the Art of Printing. 2. A History of the Old English Letter Founders 3. Alphabets Old and New 4. A Guide to the Exhibition in the King's Library, British Museum. 5. Facsimilies from Early Printed Books in the British Museum. 6. Introduction of Printing into Scotland 7. Life and Topography of Wm. Caxton (2 Vols.) 8. The History of the Alphabet 9. The Pentateuch of Printing 10. The Story of the Alphabet n. Typographical Antiquities (4 Vols.) 12. Writing and Illuminating and Lettering H. NOEL HUMPHREYS. T. B. REED. LEWIS F. DAY. ROBERT DICKSON. BLADES. ISAAC TAYLOR. BLADES. EDWARD CLODD. J. F. DIBDIN, A.B. EDWARD JOHNSTON. MODERN TYPE DISPLAY AND THE USE OF TYPE ORNAMENT CHAPTER ONE THE HISTORY OF THE ALPHABET. STAGES: i. PICTOGRAPHIC; 2. HIEROGLYPHIC; 3. HIERATIC ; 4. DEMOTIC ; 5. SYLLABIC ; 6. ALPHABETIC. THE DIFFERENT ALPHABETS: i. INCISED ROMAN; 2. PEN-WRITTEN ROMAN; 3. RUSTIC; 4. UNCIAL; 5. HALF-UNCIAL; 6. ANGLO-SAXON; 7. CAROLINE; 8. ROMAN SMALL LETTERS; 9. ITALIC; 10. GOTHIC. EVOLUTION OF LOWER-CASE LETTERS FROM CAPITALS. THE INFLUENCE OF THE REED-PEN IN FORM- ING THE CHARACTER OF MS. LETTERS. TYPE FORMS DIRECTLY DERIVED FROM HAND-WRITTEN LETTERS. NY consideration of the subject of type and its display would be incomplete without some reference to the origin of the letters used in modern printing. A long period of time lies between the compositor of to-day and his early prototype, who first attempted to communicate with his fellows by means of graphic symbols. Antecedent to this attempt at communication by means of graphic signs was the power of audible communication, which must have developed slowly during many centuries. Communication by means of speaking and hearing had many grave defects, being limited by time and distance. The recognition of these limitations may have suggested a means of communication through graphic signs, which, inscribed upon suitable surfaces, could be carried to and understood by others at great distances. 10 T is not to be supposed that these graphic symbols in their com- pleted form were the product of a single effort. We know, for instance, that the earliest graphic communications consisted of rude diagrams of men, animals, and things, the significance of which was understood and interpreted by those to whom they were addressed. These primitive drawings were not realistic in any modern sense, but were sufficiently accurate to convey the meaning intended by their writers. Such pictures undoubtedly marked the first stage in the evolution of the alphabet when drawings were used to signify the things pictured. Palsographists term such drawings Pictographs. This was the form of graphic symbol in use by the early Egyptians, whose writing of a date as early as 5000 B.C. existed in three forms, Hieroglyphic (or pictographic), Hieratic, and Demotic. In the Hieroglyphic form, a carefully outlined representation stood for the thing itself; writing of this kind was used mostly for monumental inscriptions. The Hieratic was a simplified form of the Hieroglyphic, in which the main lines or leading curves only were used, instead of the complete outline of the thing. This kind of writing was used by the priests for sacred books and records. The Demotic, as its name implies, was used by the people generally, and was based on the Hieratic form, but was still simpler and more " cursive " in character. It was employed for ordinary letter writing and for business. Though these three different kinds of writing were current at the same time, they were derived the one from the other, and occupied the same position as capitals, lower-case letters, and ordinary handwriting do with us. Each was suited for a special purpose, as in our own day Roman capitals are used for dignified and monumental inscriptions, lower-case letters (mostly) for the printing of books, and ordinary writing for correspondence. These early forms of graphic expression or writing were rather limited in use. So long as things were being written of, no special difficulty presented itself, but when ideas and abstractions required expression, the inadequacy of the system became evident. For example, the word calf in the Hieroglyphic form was represented by an outline drawing of a calf. In the Hieraiic form 1 1 the constructional or characteristic lines only of the calf were represented, while in the Demotic form these lines were still further simplified and con- ventionalised. But when such an abstraction as thirst required expression, it was represented by a calf running towards water ; thus two forms a calf and water were necessary for the expression of this single abstraction. The multiplication of these symbols increased to such an extent that no fewer than one thousand seven hundred of them are known to have been in use during the Hieroglyphic period. HE second stage of advancement towards the formation of the alphabet was reached when a single sign represented the sound used in naming the thing. At this stage the written symbol had little relation to the appearance of the thing it represented ; it stood for the sound, not for the thing itself. In the third stage it was recognised that the different syllabic sounds were few, and that each syllable could be represented by a separate symbol. That syllables were composed of a very few different root-sounds was the next and last discovery which led to the formation of the first alphabet. This was composed entirely of consonants accented in different ways. The production of separate letters for vowels came later. The alphabet which we use consists of twenty-six letters or signs. It is the most important of the two hundred and fifty alphabets which have been in use since the first one was invented. Some fifty of this number are still current, more than half of these being of local importance only. The three alphabets which have had the widest distribution and have been the greatest means of spreading knowledge and chronicling events, are the Arabic, the Chinese, and the Roman. The forms which the individual letters of these alphabets have assumed at different periods are, of course, endless, but it may be interesting to discuss and to illustrate some of the typical manu- scripts used by scribes from the second to the sixteenth century. The Roman alphabet has been spoken of as the lineal descendant of many of the alphabets used successively by the Egyptians, Phoenicians, and Greeks. In its early form it consisted of some twenty-two letters, to which 12 some were added at a later period, while others were discarded. For example, the seventh letter of the old alphabet of Italy was I (Z), a form adopted from the Greek alphabet. This letter not being required by the Romans, was dispensed with, and a new symbol (G) occupied its place. This new letter was, in fact, the greatest inno- vation which occurred in the Roman alphabet ; it was a sign to represent the hard C sound, and the rejection of I made room for the new symbol G. The Roman alphabet was further added to when the new form J was introduced. I formerly was used for both sounds. At a still later period a difference was made in the repre- sentation of two sounds formerly INCISED ALPHABET FROM THE TRAJAN expressed by V, now represented by INSCRIPTION AT ROME. 1 14 A.o. u and V. The latter was used at FIG> ' the beginning of a word, and the former elsewhere. The origin of the double V or double U is self-evident. The seventh letter of the old Italian alphabet, I or Z, which had been discarded to make room for G, was reintroduced at the end of the Roman alphabet ; it was required for the transliteration of Greek words. Its intro- duction from the French into the English alphabet dates from the fifteenth century. W and & were both originally ligatures ; the former is now included as a letter. The series of incised Capitals shown in Fig. i are copied from the base of the Trajan Column in Rome. This monument was erected in 114 A.D. to commemorate the victories of Trajan against the Dacians. As these letters are cut in stone, some differences are noticeable between them and printed or written letters. Attention might be drawn to the proportionate width and height of the individual letters. A comparison between this ABODE FG I LM NOPQJl S T V X alphabet and any "old style" fount of capitals will show that, while the latter are all nearly the same width (except M, I, J and W, which cannot be expanded or contracted ad lib.}, the individual letters in the Trajan alphabet are very varied in width. B, E, F, L, P and S are narrower, and C, D, G, N, O, Q, R and T are wider than the normal. Each letter has thus a characteristic width, which has much to do with its characteristic shape, and this materially assists identification, especially when the printing is viewed from some distance. With the exception of this incised one, all the alphabets described in this chapter are reproductions of MS. letters that is, they were written originally by hand. The pen-written Roman alphabet (Fig. 2) was used by Roman penmen for the writing of important books entirely in capitals, since no lower-case or small letters were in existence at that time. We can here trace the commencement of the alterations of form which ultimately led to the making of a complete alphabet of small letters. Notice that the letters are freer in form than those of the Trajan inscription ; they have lost something of the dignity of their ancestors, the incised letters. The beginning of the thick member of A shows its pen origin, while the upper bow of B is distinctly smaller than the lower one. The upright member of the L is higher than the upright members of the other ' . PEN-WRITTEN ROMAN CAPITALS letters, while V seems as if it could op FQURTH QR FIFTR CENTURY> hardly make up its mind whether x FIG. 2. to appear as V or U. Most of the other letters are good pen translations of the stone-cut forms, upon which they are based. ABODE FGHlL MNOPCL RSTVX H The Rustic Roman capitals (Fig. 3) are still less formal than those of the last alphabet. They bear evidence of having been printed or written more quickly and with less care than those shown in Fig. I. It will also be noted that their individual distinctive proportions have been lost, and it may be concluded that they are the work of commercial scribes rather than of literary pen craftsmen. Mere utility, divorced as far as possible from art craftsmanship, seems to have been the object of their writers. In A the crossbar has been dispensed with as being unnecessary to distinguish this letter from any of the others. The " stroking " of the A necessitated the lifting of the pen, and the commer- cially-minded scribe omitted it and thus saved so much time. In the B the upper bow has become more of a loop and less of a bow, while the lower has become proportionally larger. In the F the top horizontal member has been considerably leng- thened, becoming, for this reason, more like the lower-case f. The upright member in L retains its extra height, while its horizontal RUSTIC CAPITALS, ROMAN, member has become shorter. The long ornamental tail of Q has been cut off short, while the Y has been borrowed from a form used in the Greek alphabet. The whole alphabet, with its narrowed letters and hurried serifs, suggests a desire to economise space and time. Uncial letters (Fig. 4) were well developed as early as the fourth century, and from that time till the eighth century were in use for the writing of the finest books. They were originally one inch high, as the name " uncial " implies. It will be noticed that some of the letters originally composed of straight lines are now formed of curved ones. The reason for this is not far to seek ; it is due to the desire for increased speed and ease in writing. A&COEfC HliMNOP QJUTVT D, for instance, could be more easily made by one curve than by a straight and a curved line together. It was simpler to write E by means of one curve and one straight line than by means of four straight lines. The other new forms are A, which in this alphabet is no simpler, however, than the earlier form, and g, h, m, q, and u. A reference to modern lower-case letters will show that the forms of some of these are identical with the new characters in this Uncial alphabet. Any compositor may see that this is a mixed alphabet composed partly of capitals and partly of lower-case letters. It must be remembered that at first all letters were used as small letters, and only gradually did the practice of employing capitals as initial letters come into use. In the earlier centuries initial capital letters, several times larger than the text, were employed to mark the begin- nings of paragraphs. After the tenth century the initials became larger, while from the fourteenth century onwards they were often so large that one sometimes occupied nearly a whole page in a MS. book. Some UNCIAL BETTERS, ITALIAN, OF c . ..... SIXTH AND SEVENTH CENTURIES. or these initial letters are so orna- mental and are surrounded by so much foliage as to make it well-nigh impossible to decipher them. Only nine of the letters of this alphabet may be said to be pure capitals ; the others all show a tendency to the small or lower-case form. The alphabet is thus a hybrid, being partly capital and partly lower-case in form. In the Half-Uncial English series (Fig. 5) we find a further development towards the formation of a complete alphabet of small letters. Only two are now distinctly of the capital form ; these are N and R. The form of A has Mopqa srcivy i6 completely changed ; it is now composed of a circle with a vertical member and a connector ; b has lost its upper bow ; c, d, and e are now true lower- case letters, while f is still in a hybrid state. The final lower-case form is suggested in g, and h, i, 1 and m are all truly small letters ; p, q and u belong to the lower-case, while s appears in two alternate forms. A curved capital form of t is still used, and the letter x is more "cursive" in character and in harmony with the other letters than an old style or hi im u op qRsfcujc S&CDEF HALF-UNCIAL, ENGLISH, EIGHTH CENTURY. Half-uncial letters were used for less FIG. 5. . , important documents and books from the sixth to the ninth centuries. This kind of writing was introduced into Ireland in the sixth century from the Continent, and by the seventh century it had developed into a style which, for beauty of form, has never been surpassed. An interesting alphabet of Anglo- Saxon Capitals is shown in Fig. 6. One might be pardoned for describing them as a "mixed lot." These forms originated at the hands of many scribes, who were perhaps more open to suggestions than their predecessors. Some of the letters are close adapta- tions from the conventional Roman forms, such as C, D, E and L, while others seem to be small letter forms raised to the dignity of capitals, such as B, H, M, R, S, X and Y. F is half ANGLO-SAXON CAPITALS OF THE capital and half small letter. EIGHTH AND NINTH CENTURIES. FIG. 6. UOFQPf CYME '7 While the Half-Uncial writing of Ireland and England was famous throughout Europe, the work of the French scribes had become so poor that Charlemagne, with a view to the improvement of the writing of his own country, issued a decree in 789 A.D., ordering the adoption of a better style. It was known as the "Caroline" miniscule, and soon spread throughout Europe. It will be seen that all the letters in Fig. 7 are lower-case in form. The transi- tion from capitals to small letters had been accomplished, except that the letter t still appeared in alternate forms. It will be noticed that the letters of this alphabet slope to the right ; this is the last word in easy, cursive writing. bcdef ghilmno CAROLINE WRITING, NINTH CENTURY. FIG. 7. a bcdefg hilmnop qrsftuv ROMAN SMALL LETTERS, ITALIAN, SIXTEENTH CENTURY. FIG. 8. The gradual change from capitals to small letters, already briefly described and illustrated, culminated in a distinctive alphabet of small letters in the fifteenth century. The slope of the writing and the method of producing it varied in different countries ; but, though differing slightly in details, the root-forms were identical. The Roman small letters shown in Fig. 8 are typical of all the lower-case alphabets of the period. The only letter since dis- carded is the long s, whose likeness to f led to its expulsion. i8 jf MMOP vwxrz ITALIC CAPITALS, ITALIAN, OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. FIG. 9. y fixes, indices, and notes. It was extensively used in Italy in the writing of MS. books of poems. The Italic Small Letters (Fig. i o) naturally bear the same relation to Italic capitals as the small Romans bear to Roman capitals. A refer- ence to the " Caroline " alphabet (Fig. 7) will show that the general form of the two series is similar both in slope and character. The beginning and finishing serifs of The Italian Capitals illustrated in Fig. 9 are based upon Roman capital forms, but slope slightly to the right. They bear strong evi- dence of their pen origin, and are very free and flourished in character. They may be said to be half-written, half-printed, suggesting Roman capitals and the best examples of capitals in modern writing. Most of these letters can be written with- out lifting the pen more than once, an important consideration where speed of production must be con- sidered. Italic writing was used to distinguish certain portions of books, such as introductions, pre- ibcdefa mnop ^StlLTLs ITALIC SMALL LETTERS, ITALIAN, SIXTEENTH CENTURY. FIG. 10. the ascending and descending Italic small letters are, however, absent in the Caroline forms. Some of the Italic forms, such as a, c, e, m, n, o, p, etc., are identical with the same letters used in ordinary writ- ing. Notice that p, q, and the long s have added serifs, while the serifs in the other letters are mere constructional beginnings and endings. Italic small letters are narrower, occupy less space, and are rather more free in character and more graceful in form than the Roman. The round writing in common use by the scribes throughout Europe during the ninth and tenth centuries gradually became narrower a trclefgfji) GOTHIC OR BLACK LETTER (SMALL LETTERS) OF FIFTEENTH CENTURY. FIG. 12. GOTHIC OR BLACK LETTER (CAPITALS), FIFTEENTH CENTURY. FIG. u. and more angular in the succeeding two or three centuries. In England and Ireland it became pointed, while in Germany, by the fifteenth century, it had become very narrow and stiff. The rounded parts were represented by short thick and thin strokes set at an angle, which connected the upright members of the letters. These were placed very close together. This kind of printing or writing was called " Black Letter " by printers, because the thick members and thin interspaces gave it a black or heavy appearance. 20 Gothic lettering was in common use during the fifteenth century throughout Europe, except in Italy, which still maintained the tradition of the " round " open writing of the preceding centuries. The Germans marked this Gothic writing for their own, and even yet the type they use is mostly " black letter." A glance at the alphabet of Gothic capitals (Fig. 1 1) reveals the fact that the letters are more ornate and flourished than Roman capitals. It is interesting to try and decipher the essential root forms of the letters in Fig. 11, and in most of them it will be seen that about half of the members are necessary for the characterisation of the form, while the remaining ones are merely ornamental. These unnecessary parts make each letter less distinctive. A comparison between the alphabet illustrated (Fig. 1 2) and an alphabet of Roman small letters, will enable anyone to trace the resemblance between the forms of the various letters. It will be noticed that all the letters are composed mostly of thick members with short thick and thin connectors. The absence of curves produces the sense of angularity and stiffness so characteristic of most Gothic writing. Because the letters are composed of so few different typical members, they are liable to be confused the one with the other. Especially is this so in n and u, r and x. In this alphabet, as in all the others, the individual letters are placed some distance from each other, so that their forms may be more easily appreciated, but in ordinary Gothic writing, the letters being close together are more difficult to decipher. HE series of illustrations shown on pages 22 and 23 exhibit some of the intermediary forms which letters took during seventeen centuries. Beginning with the dignified capitals of early Roman times, they gradually developed into the " cursive " writing in common use in the fifteenth century, when printing from movable types was invented. From the middle of the fifteenth to the end of the sixteenth century many printing presses had been established, and as every printer was at that time his own type founder, many different kinds of types were in use. By 21 the end of the first fifty years of printing, about two hundred and fifty presses had been set up. The early founder-printers, as was natural, imitated in their types the narrow angular writing of the time, but soon the clear round Italian writing first used in type form by the printers of Italy gained such favour, that it gradually displaced the Gothic type, and Roman letters, both capitals and lower-case, as we now know them, came into general use. When type-founding as a separate business was established, printers found it to their advantage to purchase their type from the founders, instead of casting it for themselves, and this reduced the variety of founts, and further development in the forms of letters was of course limited. The alterations which had occurred in written letters before the advent of type were mostly occasioned by increased speed in writing. Parts un- necessary for the distinguishing of the individual letters were omitted. For instance, in the letter A, page 22, the first feature to be dispensed with was the cross-bar, which was unnecessary to distinguish this letter from any other, and so to save the penman's time it was omitted. In the third example of A, the first member begins to turn upwards, and eventually develops into a circle, which in its final lower-case form, a, is reduced in size. It need hardly be stated that the evolution was not regular nor uniform in different countries. The forms illustrated have been taken from many manuscripts produced during seventeen centuries in many countries. They have been arranged to show the kind of changes which took place, rather than to illustrate the actual order of development. All the letters illustrated were actually in use though not necessarily in the order given. Many of them will be recognised as belonging to alphabets already described and illustrated. Some scripts retained an early form for a long period ; this was rather suddenly supplanted by a more cursive form, probably adopted from another country. This character might persist for a time, and a return be again made to an earlier form. The letter B, in its Roman form, had its two bows nearly equal in size and similar in form. The second B shown is taken from a Rustic Roman Script ; in it the upper bow has become less important, while the lower one has become correspondingly larger. In the third example the Incised Letters, Intermediary Manuscript Forms, Lower-case Lower-case Ordinary Trajan Inscription, Third to Sixteenth Centuries. Roman Italic Modern L*4 <*** A A ^ cA a d ijpc. a JL y LK;. a na.nu>v ruing. B B B b b b b b / C c c c c C c c C D a 6 6 d d a d d E e e e e c e e e F r r f f f r f f G 5 s 9 5* g: 2 ? H h Ti \i b h b & I I i i i i i i K K k k k k k L L 1 I II I / MM(D(T)mm m m n NNNuPln n n TI 22 Incised Letters, Intermediary Manuscript Forms, Lower-case Lower-case Ordinary Trajan Inscription, Third to Sixteenth Centuries. Roman Italic Modern ii4 *** O o o o o jype. O 1 ype. Hanawritii & p p p p p P p P A a Q q q S CJ s 7 9 R P R r r r r T" f S S J f r s s y . am noutt inminue uia iufei^ : ittcc is iwufift iiltatcnru foplinam: nua^perca arDmtinbi uttfummr, nofftfaluc ftnefufepti altaarapit ntinudam teladofua tamertiut a&uTamta paatoruro Part of a page of the 42-line Bible printed at Mainz not later than 1456. (King's Library, British Museum). '? 2 >. *S Be <=>. H j c ffw-s s o 'n .u 43 % 3 w gl^'2 lr SgS r ? ,a /3 E S * S ta s lillll- 2S i'?tl-u II II II -5*^,2 "-^ - w^^-g ^ 2^ fll^li l^lfV] 1 !! ss^lly^:2 ~ " a^g'Sil'li S o-Z.c o~o K^^- fW * V c a^^f *^ * ** 4J \v w a^Mii to c 5 u: ve fc)J5 s '- ** 3 c n -Per* KiliillliUmfiitltll 1 i CQ S o u ^ J.I- b g s ;/T~~ * o -o S J5 j-S" .2 V . o o -= = I - - ^ E a llSJJ'zl - -' _ ^-'^ - .- - y, of tfe f$ifefop$** atprmitet? >% me tfttttanp i) a* Befftntffo $ pew of out fcjbp is fete tanffefety 9 , 0^ ^ (no8& of ^^ug6 ^i^ of a o o ^^/$D^fctt^our anbp ^ttec6ouc o fo* out fyfy ^a^* (^ Cf>ofc HJ ^ic ^ogame of o m 0w& ttjwtt of tB 9 nwtt'fe*j o? t^ dfc fefibut o dot) tffctof MJ 60 out m^Kff? ftmgt/ a pngu&t feto g t^n^ (t^^^mte m^ (agty K>JJ> 6> ou^fce it anb? tB^te a0 Jfljotoe amende i^/ue if J f^f (o prefume (t tBag wo;^ tBe0 g nnj>gufy ^ 5006? anb? fp mg& me 65 oue*fce \t g f^^ me ^ue*'ce djmape t^ fcmebp m^^ fe &f ( ou^ ae X>tu^cc &(tw nnf fen* fan; QWXfatifc* 6> ^ttn^ an^ aripo^fe g cc^c 6? (crte> 8m R^P a^ettinrnf $w& fc From "The Dictes or Sayengis of the Philosophres." Printed by Caxton at Westminster 1477. (The King's Library, British Museum). PLATE V. <>mtnt nt in fiteoa fttc arjjti as mtmttp in ira fcia tottipt as medZiftrm mci Dn^ qm ffitm9 fit ; fena me Dtic qm cotiuteta funt oda mca^t anima mr Q ftitfeate 2 wilt :ftD tit tJfic xif^quodlonucrfe re Dfic et cr tpc ara'ma mcH: (aluum nit foe ^tct miftntoiDta ftm^mi non (6 in moitt qui mmtm fit (tit: inmfemo autmt qitis confitebtiitc fiBWahnatri in goniftumo laita to per fingulao nortco Icctu mcil :la^ cnmia meie ftrafci maim ngato < ^Mitetus (G a fiicote oculue me9: tnuctccaiti mttt onntto ttmntros m^oo^O ifitWr a me omnra qui opiamim tmqiutatcm:qucmia er ; auDimt Dne xocem flctuo mep^l f autiiuit ttimmuB lepiccacone meat tins mone mta Page from the Latin Psalter. Printed by Caxton between 1480 and 1483. (King's Library, British Museum). PLATE VI. Itber t crcuid c i oe of flbdue/tbe tbjtoe of epgbe/tbe .it. as tbfe r>pre f jjtfcetb* DC Dde/ bete to (ones 2Dpateoirnn;/g tbat $ io tumbles is calleo aU $ ^e epgitfetij Deic / ^cet to ftttmes Double 3Dpapa(OQ.H6 io melodpe of one Ore ge/?f tip Orpnge be ffte/neo enlonge Dpoo tj>e bol owteOe ot a tree / g oe^ parteo eueo a tttob^ab^ogr (ette t^ere tttoer io e^cfjec parts of p (ton ge/$e (btwte (ball be iDrapafoo/pf ctje Owns be Orepned g touc|)edi2lno ff t^e Oreng be oeparteo eueo to t&t g ffc btpdge fette tutOer/(o t^a( it oe patte b^ttbene $e tt&ep deles g^^pc oe/tbao $e (engec Dde of ^e ftreng jfyt be fimcfjeo (ball peue a (bvme cal leo iDpattfleroOiSnD pf it be oepar^ eed to n?ne/anD tbe bipogc (ette un^ aec bptttene tbe (aft parte anD cfje tw tber Dele / t^ao tbe (engec ode of tfje Qtengepf (tbetoucbeo (ball peue a fotbne/ebat beee ^onus/foz njme (5 tepnetj) e^gbt/anD tt)e epgbt parte of -I wntra Uuf^any of J&wtagoias tot ^wntmi Wles bepte bet mapOwsbeettesio flbiorbe. m^noe ano DCeo ber u>ptte atto myn ae to duty* of boobes/ano twgbt (bat man? (ucbe pwuerbes (ball b tt ano oeparte (oioste fron? tfj oye/wtconn^ge fronj tbettptte (ber^e fronj tbe uombe/treafoo oute of tbejCpte/ftryfeout of tbe bow* 3ncontpnence ano ba(tyneue oute of aa tbpngee^ICo all tbat ftenoes b^ ue (ball be compo H fmtoe is tbe o^ fijer of rtMrne ^e mutt tafee beoe of tj?mc8 . after goo (otbnefle ftall be tto%ppeo tbat mafee4) meo be nejct goo. C^Cpoouis lilwo ooatio ca leo bptt) (dfe (opbittris tbat is uspfe/ mao be rots/be antoeroe ano i tbat be uas a pbplofopber / tbat is a louecof ttptte anoof ttyttoome fot to calfe bpnj (dfe a tty>(e mao/it n>ol Oe (erne grete booft icaiUimfUifi[ienuIIiefreimHainno;I t m mtite me et hlio ^e.Coftitueratoiu iUtcoomt obfldcre fj \nlta vidit fra* iremoititqjfedeccunM.cccebicp:opc ipfuinfratrtoZDitioqrotect noqroo iemdudG.t.e*muItoantecpej^f.qufdn5.<.Cttrqumbaeme.E'e,rero.ffer< fence olia flagitta ingetia.i.enoz y conu crtan t rcm vt DP tanr 7 vd vt nojuntnobigcxpedire.toocQatcmoictumfrcqBeno cflapud comtcos.Btibuic fount quod agaa.plerumqp enrm bonaiin penio.mela mutantur in meltua. .... bcrc.o;.ct ip i a nr go eft oucenda.ld eft cap i en da in vsot cm indetata.id eft fine Page from Terence's "Comoediae Sex." Printed by Richard Pynson in 1495. (In the possession of the Author). ABOUT ARNOLD & FOSTER, LTD., EYNSFORD PAPER MILLS, KENT. Hand-made Printing Papers. ARNOLD & FOSTER have made a specialty of Hand-made Printing Papers for over one hundred years. They have supplied Hand -made Paper for important editions issued by the following well-known publishers: G. Bell & Sons. George Allen (Ruskin Library Edition). The Oxford University Press. Cambridge University Press. The Kelmscott Press. The Chiswick Press. This page is printed upon Unbleached Arnold Hand-made Antique Laid 30 Ib. Demy. Plates II. and VII. are printed upon Unbleached Arnold Cream Wove Unglazed 30 Ib. Demy. Plates III. and VI. are printed upon Unbleached Arnold Cream Wove Glazed 30 Ib. Demy. These Papers, and all other usual sizes and substances, both Laid and Wove, are made of the best linen rags, without the use of chemicals, by Arnold & Foster, Ltd., Eynsford Paper Mills, Kent. Type by STEPHENSON, BLAKE & Co. and Sir CHARLES REED & SONS, Sheffield. Italian Old Style, 24 point and 14 point. Italian Old Style Italic, 24 point and 14 point. 25 letter in the alphabet ; yet the two main features, the arc of a circle, and the short vertical member or tail seen in the capital G are still present in the lower-case g, though greatly modified in form. Originally the letter C was the symbol used to express two sounds nearly similar ; these were the soft and the hard C. Later it was found expedient to add a tail to signify the hard sound ; so G was the form evolved. This tail, which was originally an accent, has developed in the lower-case form until it is now the larger part of the letter, while the upper part, originally a bow, is now a circle. The persistence of the tail is well seen in the series of examples shown. The second form is a C accented ; in the third example, the tail has been twisted into a loop ; the fourth example shows a return towards the original G form, while the next three examples show the continued evolution of the tail. The small extender to the right, terminating in a ball or dot, represents what was formerly a pen dash ; this appears in the original G as a serif. In the second example of H the second upright member has been made shorter than the first, while in the next specimen, the same member is connected to the first by a curve, instead of by a horizontal cross-bar. What seems to be a quite unnecessary loop is also added ; this is merely an ornament, as the letter was used as a capital. The other examples are essentially lower-case in form. I has suffered practically no change, except that it has been reduced to half its height, and has had a dot placed over it in the small letter form. This dot is a curious survival. It was originally an accent to signify double i, i.e., ii, while single i was written without any accent. In the fourteenth century the accent began to change into a dot ; the earliest occurrence of i instead of i was in a manuscript written in 1327. The fact that j also appears with a dot is a proof that it was obtained from i by differentiation, and also that the practice of dotting the i is older than the evolution of j. For two sounds now represented by I and J, one symbol I was used for many centuries, but a need arose for the distinguishing of the two sounds, and the I was produced below the writing line and curved at its termination, making J. In K k no change has occurred, except in the reduction of the height c 26 of the second and third members, and the necessary alteration in the form of the serif at the upper end of the first member. The horizontal member of L became shorter and shorter as time went on, till it now exists in the lower-case 1 merely as a serif. It will be noticed that the first M has no upper serifs. M in its capital form consists of four members, which in the third example is reduced to three ; the second and third members have been merged into one, while the first and fourth members are curved instead of straight. That the three members gave the letter its characteristic form is evidenced by the fifth example shown, where the scribe has simply drawn three upright members and connected them by a horizontal bar. The changes in N are of a nature similar to those of M. Capital N consists of three members, whereas lower-case n is composed of two members connected by a curve. The fourth example of N is from a " half-uncial " MS. in which it may be remembered capitals and small letters were used indiscriminately. The true lower-case n was also used in this script, not only in the same page, but often in the same word. The fifth example shows the lower-case form raised to the dignity of a capital. The letter O has shown practically no alteration during all these centuries ; simple and complete in itself at the first, no parts could be added to it nor any dispensed with. It will be noticed that in some of the examples it appears narrower than the normal, or pointed, but its essential form (without beginning or end) remains the same as at the first. P has changed its position rather than its form ; its lower half is now below the line thus p. The letter Q q shows some interesting changes. These have occurred mostly in connection with the characteristic tail, which, originally of considerable length, and sloping downwards towards the right, gradually assumed an upright position thus q. The lower-case r exhibits the result of gradual attenuation. R in its capital form consists of three members. In the second example given, the third member has been shortened ; this member eventually disappears, while the final lower-case r has lost one half of its second member besides. The career of S s has been a chequered one. Originally one of the most graceful forms, it degenerated in the course of time into a straight line 2 7 with a small curve at each end, the lower one of which was finally omitted. This, along with the other form s, was in general use when printing was invented, and both forms were used for some centuries afterwards. Its likeness however to f was the cause of its undoing, and it was rather suddenly superseded by its fellow s, which is now almost invariably used, except by a few printers bent upon giving a mediaeval character to their work. The two essential features of T are retained in the lower-case form t. The vertical member has however been shortened a little, while the cross- bar has also been shortened and lowered. The reduction in the total height of the lower-case t was doubtless made to prevent its being confused with f. U and V were originally the same letter, V being used at the beginning of a word and U elsewhere. The form U is of very recent introduction. The early printers used a capital U with a thick second vertical, whereas modern founders make the second vertical thin, omitting the lower serif thus, U. The lower-case u is very similar in form to the original capital form. v, x, and z are identical in their lower-case with their capital forms V, X, and Z. W was not a letter of the Roman alphabet. As its name implied, it is a V or U doubled. In early examples of printing, it is sometimes shown thus, VV, showing its origin as a double V or U. In some scripts the small letter is shown as a double U, though the type founders have mostly rejected this form and make it thus, W. It is difficult to reconcile the appearance of the lower-case letters v, w, x, and z with the other lower-case forms. They seem dwarfed capitals (as they are), and do not exhibit the same modifications as most of the other letters of the alphabet do. The fault, if any, is to be laid upon the early type founders, because w, x, and z at least were modified in harmony with their fellows during the centuries when the capitals were being evolved into the lower-case forms. The form of Y y has changed in one or two particulars, noticeably in the width of the lower member, which, originally upright, thick, and a continuation of the first member, is now thin and curved, actually an extension below the line of the second member. The alterations which have taken place in the " ampersand " can be very closely traced 28 in the examples shown. The first examples show the two letters E and T very clearly as a ligature ; then there is a gradual change until the last form (an ordinary written one) is reached, which is very unlike the original form. All these alterations of form originally brought about by increased speed in writing, have culminated in the well-known lower-case forms, which have now been fixed by the printing press. The necessity for these forms does not now exist, but we have become so accustomed to their appearance, that a return to the use of capitals only could hardly be accomplished. The advantages of the use of both capitals and lower-case forms are many ; besides, capitals only are still appropriate in special cases. In the MS. of the scribes, initials were used at the beginning of paragraphs, instead of the indentations by which the compositor marks them nowadays. The use of initials at the beginning of a page was an excuse for the scribe to introduce one, often of ornamental form. In the later centuries of MS. writing, the initial letter and its decoration often occupied most of a page. Gold and colour were very freely used, while ornamental borders and line finishings were common in the most important books. Thus the ancestor of the compositor was free and untrammelled. The questions of one, two, or multiple printings did not concern him, for, by the mere change of his pen or brush, he could introduce any number of colours he chose. He was able to change the character of his printing or increase or reduce the size of it at will, place his lines of printing close together or wide apart without the use of leads, being independent of type founders, composing sticks, cases, chases, boxes, or formes. Initial letters and decorations were still added by the scribes to the early printed books. In fact it is open to doubt whether the first books printed from movable types were not intended to be counterfeit imitations of band-written books. The modern book, however, exists on its own merits, and while the compositor of to-day works under different conditions from his precursor, the scribe, he has still the means (if he recognises his limitations) of producing works both readable and decorative. 2 9 WIDE variety of tools has been used during the ages for the making of printed inscriptions and books. The form of these inscriptions is dependent principally upon three factors. These are, first the writing tool ; second the medium (or ink) used for writing with; and third the surface upon which the characters are written. The early pictographs were doubtless made upon very rude surfaces, and with very primitive instruments. For drawing upon stone, skins, or bark, burnt wood or charcoal would be used for black, and natural earths or clays would be employed when colour was required. Bone and ivory were also used as writing surfaces, and a hard metal point was used for scratching upon them. Babylonian and Assyrian scribes employed wedge- shaped punches, by means of which they impressed their " cuniform " characters upon soft clay tablets, which were afterwards sun-baked or fired to render them permanent. The ancient Egyptians also incised their Hiero- glyphic characters upon stone and plaster, which were often further enriched by means of colour. Writing proper, however, as we understand it, was made in most cases with a brush or a pen, and upon a smooth writing surface, such as skin, parchment, or paper. As early as 3500 B.C., the scribes of Egypt used a reed pen, either cut with a chisel point or simply sharpened and bruised on the writing end. The former produced writing with thick and thin strokes, the latter writing with lines of equal thickness throughout. This writing was made upon a surface prepared from the pith of the papyrus plant, which was cut into thin strips or bands and laid close together in parallel rows, being crossed by a similar set of gummed bands laid upon them at right angles. The fabric of strips was then pressed, dried in the sun, and polished smooth on the surfaces. Some of the papyrus inscriptions which have been discovered are fifteen inches wide by eighty or ninety feet long. The Greeks and Romans also used papyrus for their writing. The use of parchment or vellum as a writing material became general during the earlier centuries of the Christian Era along with the use of the quill pen. The tools employed always influence the character of the craftsman's 3 product, and this is nowhere more evident than in the case of writing. The form of the chisel-shaped writing point causes the variety of thick and thin strokes, and of curves of varying thickness, which is one of the principal beauties of good manuscript writing, and of its type imitation good printing. The forms of type letters are directly based upon writing or printing produced by a reed or quill pen, and an understanding of the form and use of such a pen will assist the judgment in deciding what is and what is not legitimate in the forms of type letters. It seems remarkable that in such a country as Japan, where suitable reeds of many kinds grow pro- fusely, the Japanese should not have seen the artistic possibilities of such a writing tool. Yet Japanese writing (adopted origin- ally from China) is produced by means of a brush a far more flexible tool, and one which has had a marked effect on the character of the writing produced. Tradition counts for very much, and while the original bias in China was in favour of the brush, the early penmen of the Roman Empire had a tradition going back thousands of years through earlier Greek, Phoenician, and Egyptian civilizations in favour of the reed pen. Diagrams are given here of the form of the hollow reed pen used by the writers of ancient MS., and the different stages in the making of it. In the diagram (Fig. 13) (a) represents a side view of the reed or quill, the dotted line showing the cutting away of the first part, (d] represents the second part which is cut away, (c] shows the nib split, (d] the nib cut at a slight angle by a sharp knife, and (e) the introduction of a thin Thick and Thin I . |J /ft t VuniionbU thick /'Nwrtiol , , 1 |e tKick and Mack letter FIG. 13. 3 1 metal strap to contain the ink. A pen cut in this fashion produces thick vertical strokes and thin horizontal strokes when used with the edge of the nib parallel to the horizontal edge of the page, as shown in the diagram (_/") (Fig. 13). Scribes term this "straight" pen writing. When the pen is held in a slanted position, with the edge of the nib at an angle to the horizontal edges of the page, it produces moderately thick vertical strokes connected together by thick and thin "heads and tails" (k] (Fig. 13). At the invention of printing, the lettering of the scribes of Northern Europe had become very narrow and angular, and this was copied by the early founder-printers. It is now known as Gothic lettering, or as printers call it, " Black Letter." From this difference in the holding of the same pen arose the two main divisions of lettering, which are still evident in type faces : Roman, which shows the result of the use of the straight pen, and Black Letter, the result of the use of the slanted pen. CHAPTER TWO THE EARLY PRINTERS. GERMANY ITALY FRANCE THE NETHERLANDS SPAIN ENGLAND. |ERMANY. Much contradictory evidence has been brought forward in the various attempts made to prove who was the inventor of printing from movable types. It has been naturally assumed that the printing of illus- trations and letterpress from engraved wooden blocks preceded that of printing from movable type. Taking in each case only dated examples, it is found that the earliest book printed from movable type was issued in 1457, while the earliest printed block-book is dated 1470, i.e., thirteen years later. One of the most popular block-books was the " Biblia Pauperum," which went through many editions. It consisted of about forty leaves, and contained scenes from the Old and New Testaments, with explanatory letterpress. The early examples were printed on one side of the paper only, and were produced without any printing press. The impressions were made by laying the sheets face downwards upon the inked surface of the block, and pressing upon them with a smooth burnisher. The later editions were printed upon both sides of the paper, and were produced in a printing press. Though the engraving of a page of letterpress upon a wooden block involved more care and time than the setting of a similar page of movable type, the process had some advantages, notably in a greater freedom of arrangement. Fresh impressions could also be taken without the necessity of re-setting. These advantages enabled the process to remain in use till 1530, almost seventy-five years after the invention of movable type. Documentary evidence exists, which proves that experiments had been made in printing with movable types of some kind as early as 1444. These trials had been made at Avignon, in France, and also at Haarlem, in 32 33 Holland. It is generally conceded, however, that to Johann Gutenberg belongs the honour of the invention. Very little is known of the life of Gutenberg. That it was one which was full of effort and disappointment seems certain. We read that in 1439 he was prosecuted for the repayment of a loan at Strasburg, while a similar action was raised against him in 1455 for the balance of two loans advanced to him in 1450 and 1452 by Johann Fust. These loans were presumably made in connection with experiments in the making of type. Of all the books supposed to have been printed by him, none bears his name. The earliest known examples of printing from movable type are two letters of Indulgence granted by Pope Nicholas V., and printed in 1454. The sins of the holders of these Indulgences were pardoned upon condition that they gave a certain sum of money to aid the King of Cyprus in a war against the Turks. These two Indulgences, it is supposed, were printed in two separate printing offices in Mainz, one of which likely belonged to Gutenberg. In 1455 the first Latin Bible was printed. This has been known as the " Mazarine Bible," from the fact that the copy in the Mazarine Library at Paris was the first one to attract the attention of bibliophiles ; it has also been called the Gutenberg Bible, from its being generally attributed to the press of Gutenberg; and the "42 line Bible," from the fact that each of its pages contains 42 lines of printing. The page of this bible is folio size ; the red initial letters were stamped by hand after the completion of the letterpress printing in black. In the later pages the initials were written by hand. A copy of this bible, printed on vellum, was sold recently in New York for 10,000. (See Plate I.) Another Latin Bible, known as the " 36 line Bible," having 36 lines to a column, was issued also at Mainz not later than 1461. The larger type used in the two Indulgences is identical with the type used throughout in these two Bibles ; it is supposed that each of the printing offices issued one Indulgence and one Bible. The printers of these early books imitated very closely the arrange- ment of the MS. books then in common use. The type-letters were imitations of manuscript writing of the time and locality. The scribes D 34 used no title-pages nor pagination, being content to inscribe a colophon at the end of the volume, which usually included the name of the writer and the date and place of production, to which was usually added a prayer of thanksgiving on the completion of the book. This form was imitated by the early printers, who for the best printed books still employed the scribes to write the initials, and add any necessary decoration by hand. It is conjectured by some authorities that the early printed books were meant to be counterfeit imitations of hand-written ones, and only to a trained eye is the difference between some hand-written and early printed books evident. This is easily believed when it is remembered that some of the best examples of early books were printed on vellum, and often much enriched by hand illumination. Only those who know what exactness of body, sizes and height-to- paper standards, are necessary for the composition of a line of type, can appreciate the marvellous results obtained by the early printers. When it is remembered that the types were cast singly by hand, possibly without an adjustable matrix, that the ink was distributed over the types by a " dabber " and not by a roller, and that the impression was made in a very primitive press, the skill of the early printer craftsman can hardly be over-estimated. Gutenberg is reputed to have printed three hundred sheets per day. Two other printers of Mainz divide the honours of the infant art with Gutenberg. These were Johann Fust, a jeweller, who seemed to have had some business connection with Gutenberg, as it was he who prosecuted him for the repayment of two loans granted in 1450 and 1452, and Peter SchofFer, an illuminator. From the press of these two, in 1457, was issued the first book bearing the name of its printer and the date of its publication. This was a liturgical Psalter, printed in large clear Gothic type, in which the initial letters were afterwards stamped by hand types in blue and red. A similar Psalter, by the same printers, was issued two years later. A copy of this book was sold in 1884 for 4,950, which until recently was the highest price ever given at a public auction for a printed book. The same printers issued a fine bible in 1462, printed in 35 much smaller type. This is the first dated bible, and the first occasion on which a book was issued, divided formally into two volumes. In the same year, Mainz was captured and sacked, and this put a stop to the further development of printing there, at least for a time. Owing to the sacking of Mainz, the printers were scattered, and within the next few years, printing presses were established in nearly all European Countries. Even before this time the art had been carried to several different towns in Germany, for we learn that in 1460, another great Latin Bible had been printed by Johann Mentelin at Strassburg. In 1466, Ulrich Zel issued his first dated book at Cologne, while in 1468 Giinther Zainer had issued a book at Augsburg. This printer was the first German to adopt Roman type, which he did in 1472. It is said that he brought it with him from Italy, the land of its birth. TALY. As early as 1465, we find two German printers, Conrad Sweynheym and Arnold Pannartz, established at Subiaco, in Italy. There they printed four books, one of them being " Lactantius," an opera, in which for the first time Greek type was used. The common custom hitherto was to leave blank spaces for Greek quotations, which were afterwards filled in by hand. In the same year, some German printers, established in Rome, issued a " Cicero de Oratore " in Roman type, which had, however, a certain Gothic flavour about it. The first native Italian printer was an officer in the Papal household named Joannes Philippus de Lignamine, who printed at Rome in 1470 a work entitled " Vitae Caesarum." In the same year, Nicolas Jenson, a native of Sommevoire, in France, issued his first book at Venice. The type he used was a beautiful fount of pure Roman, which has served as a model to all subsequent founders of Roman type. It was based on the clear, round Italian MS. writing of the period. Jenson's type was on a body corre- sponding to English (about 14 point). The capital letters numbered twenty-three (J, U, and W not being in use at that date). The lowercase contained the same number, except that u was substituted for v, and in 36 addition, there were a long s and the dipthongs as and oe. To complete the fount, there were fifteen contractions, six double letters, and three points, viz., . : and ?, making seventy-three sorts in the whole fount. After Jenson's death, his type and matrices passed into the hands of a firm of which Andrea Torresani was the head. Another famous printer of Italy is Aldus Manutius, who joined Andrea Torresani as a partner. He became Torresani's son-in-law at a later date, and finally inherited his types and matrices. Aldus was the printer of the most famous of Venetian illustrated books, the " Hypnerotomachia Poliphili," a romance, illustrated by no fewer than 1 68 woodcuts of great refinement, and printed in Roman letters of very fine form. (See Plate Ilia.) Aldus is well known as the originator of Italic type. This was at first called " Aldine " or Venetian, and subsequently termed " Italic," and in Germany, " Cursiv." The punches for the fount were cut by the painter, Francesco de Bologna (better known as Francia). For this fount only lowercase letters were cut, Roman capitals being used along with them. Italics were first used in the printing of " Virgilius," issued by Aldus in 1501. The type found immediate popularity, and was imitated by many of Aldus's contemporaries. Originally intended for the printing of entire books, as in the " Virgilius," it was used at a later period to distinguish certain portions of the text, such as introductions, prefaces, and indices. It is now almost entirely reserved for emphasising certain words in the text. FRANCE. France received the new art in 1470 by the hands of three German printers, Ulrich Gering of Constance, and Martin Kranz and Michael Friburger of Colmar. These men were invited to set up a press by two of the professors of the College of the Sorbonne of Paris ; accom- modation was assigned to them within the College buildings. For two years, they continued to occupy the workshop provided for them, and issued during that time several books, mostly of a scholastic kind. After this time, they moved to new premises, and began to print in opposition to other craftsmen, who had established presses without the assistance of the College. 37 THE NETHERLANDS. In the year 1473, the first dated book was printed in the Netherlands. It is practically certain that fifty books were printed there before 1473, but no date or place can be assigned to any of them. They were rather rude, and certainly could not have been printed by craftsmen who had been trained at Mainz. Two firms issued books in the Netherlands in 1473 ; these were Nicolaus Ketelaer, and Gerard Leempt at Utrecht, and John of Westphalia and Thierry Martens at Alost. John of Westphalia was the first printer of the Netherlands who used Roman type, and the only printer of that country who used it in the fifteenth century. Our own first English printer, Caxton, also issued, with the help of Colard Mansion, two books at Bruges. During the fifteenth century, printing presses were at work in twenty-one towns in the Netherlands. Two other printers, though of much later date, must be mentioned in connection with the Netherlands. These are the Plantins, who established a press at Antwerp in 1555, and who maintained a great tradition for printing there through several generations, and the Elzevirs, who produced many fine books in Amsterdam and other Dutch towns from 1595 to 1680. They are famous for a fine i amo Edition of the Latin Classics. Their Roman type was cut by Christopher van Dijk, and was used as a model by later English type-founders. SPAIN. Printing was introduced into Spain in 1474 by a German or Flemish printer named Lambert Palmart, who, along with Alonzo Fernandez of Cardova, set up a press at Valencia. Spanish printing does not occupy a very important place in the annals of the art ; less than six hundred Spanish books were produced before the close of the fifteenth century. Most of these books were the work of foreign printers, less than one-third of them being printed by native craftsmen. The more important centres of printing in Spain were Saragossa, Seville, Barcelona, Salamanca, Burgos, and Toledo. The type mostly used was based upon the Spanish manuscript writing of the period, and is dignified and fine in character. NGLAND. England was the last important European country to receive the new art, which she did through the medium of one of her own sons. William Caxton had had a very chequered career. Born about 1420 in the Weald of Kent, he was apprenticed in 1438 to a London mercer named Robert Large. Upon the death of his master soon after, he migrated to the Continent, living at different times in Brabant, Flanders, Holland, and Zealand, becoming afterwards the Governor of the English Merchants at Bruges. When about fifty years of age, he entered the service of the Duchess of Burgundy (the sister of Edward IV.), as her Secretary, and was encouraged by her to continue a translation of Raoul le Fevre's " Recueil des histoires de Troye," which had been interrupted by other affairs. By 1471, he had finished the translation, and as he had promised copies of it to several friends, he looked about for the means of producing them. The means of accomplishing this, however, were not at hand, and some years elapsed before he was able to associate himself with Colard Mansion, a skilled writer of manuscripts. Together, they printed the book at Bruges in 1475. The translation was begun on i8th March 1468, and finished on igth September 1471. He quaintly describes the translation and printing of the book : " Thus ende I this book whyche I have translated after myn Auctor as nyghe as God hath gyven me connyng, to whom be gyven the laude and preysing. And for as moche as in the wrytyng of the same my penne is worn, my hand wery and not stedfast, myn eyen dimmed with overmoche lokyng on the whit paper, and my corage not so prone and redy to laboure as hit hath ben, and that age crepeth on me dayly and febleth all the bodye ; and also because I have promysid to dyverce gentilmen and to my frendes to addresse to hem as hastely as I myght this sayd book. Therefore, I have practysed and lerned at my great charge and dispense to ordeyne this said book in prynte after the manner and form as ye may here see, and is not wreton with penne and ynke, as other bokes ben, to thende that every man may have them attones, for all the bookes of this storye named the Recule of the Historyes of Troyes, thus enprynted as ye may here see, were begonne in oon day and also fynysshid in oon 39 day." But for troublous times in the country of his adoption, Caxton might have continued to translate and print there, but he thought it better to return to England, which he accordingly did in 1476. The first English printer set up his press in September 1476, in a shop attached to the Sanctuary at Westminster. Here, in the autumn of the following year, Caxton issued the first dated book printed in England, "The dictes or Sayengis of the Philosophres." Mr Blades (Caxton's Biographer) distinguishes several different founts used by Caxton. Type No. i was used for "The Recuyell " and also for "The Game and Playe of the Chesse," both of which were printed with the help of Colard Mansion at Bruges in 1475 and 1476. This fount was about greatprimer in size (rather larger than 18 point), and was composed of no fewer than 163 sorts; it was left behind at Bruges. Type No. 2 was cut by Colard Mansion, and brought by Caxton himself when he returned to England in 1476. This fount was on a body equal to two-line longprimer (about 20 point), and consisted of 217 sorts. The capitals were very irregular. Twenty books were printed in this type between 1477 and 1479, including " The Dictes or Sayengis," Chaucer's " Canterbury Tales," and a second edition of " The Game and Playe of the Chesse." The two founts already referred to, as well as types 4, 5, and 6, were based upon a style of manuscript writing known as "Secretary." Type No. 3, however, was of quite a different character. It was used for the printing of a " Latin Psalter," issued sometime between 1480 and 1483, as well as for a few other church books, and for occasional headlines elsewhere. The beauty of this type can be seen by referring to a reproduction of a page of the Psalter from the only known copy in the British Museum. (See Plate V.) The fount consisted of some 194 sorts. Type 4 was similar to type 2, but rather smaller. " The book of the subtyl hystoryes and Fables of Esope which were translated out of the Frensshe into Englysshe by William Caxton, 1483," was printed with this type. Type 5 was like type 3, but of a less size, while type 6 was similar to type 2, and consisted of 141 sorts. Eighteen works were printed with type 6 between 1489 and 1491, including " The Fifteen Oes," and other prayers. This book consisted of fifteen 4 o prayers, each beginning with the invocation O ; it is the only book having ornamental borders known to have been printed by Caxton, and was dedicated to Edward IV. 's Queen. Though Caxton did not begin to print before he was fifty-five years of age, he produced no fewer than one hundred books during the next sixteen years. His time was so much occupied in translating, that it is doubtful, if after the first year or so, he set or printed any of his books with his own hands. Most of the works he issued were printed in English ; they were almost all of a popular character, and it is not likely that books of any other kind would have found a successful sale in England at that time. Upon his death, in 1491, his business was continued by his assistant, Wynkn de Worde, generally supposed to have been a native of Worth, in Alsace. It is conjectured that he came from Bruges, along with Caxton, in 1476, and no doubt held an important position in Caxton's office from then till 1491, when he succeeded to his master's business. He inherited most of Caxton's matrices, and, besides, cut new letters for himself. He was a better printer than scholar, and produced some six hundred books, including new editions and pamphlets. The black letter founts that he cut became models for England and the Continent. He introduced some improvements upon the practice of Caxton, notably the introduction of title-pages, and the more regular use of ornamental initials. Though he printed some important books, many of which were reprints of his master's, he could hardly be called one of the best printers of his time. From 1491 to 1500 he continued to print in Caxton's house, after which he removed to the Sign of the Sun in Fleet Street. The illustration shown on Plate VI. is a page from Higden's " Polychronicon " or Universal History, printed by Wynkn de Worde ; it is the first example of music-printing in England. De Worde died in 1534. Richard Pynson is the third of the well-known printers working in London at the end of the fifteenth century. He seems to have been a Norman by birth, and probably learned his craft in Rouen, a great printing centre at this early time. He started business in London in 1491 (the year in which Caxton died), and is supposed to have taken over the fh s ^ s?i 53^ i 5 i ^ S3 =3 | *cd ^ J CO OJ J2 1JI i^ > " CO rt 03 ol asfs j & co 8.8 o S-H ^C 4-> i cu ^ X ._, C rt n3 *-!-< 3 O (U Oj > 1 -. *-i ^ 3 d> 3! 1 . X i UJ PLATE XL THERE WAS A TIME WHEN CASLON TYPE WAS NOT MADE, BUT THIS WAS BEFORE THE YEAR I7I6A.D., IN WHICH WILLIAM CASLON TURNED HIS ATTENTION TO THE CUTTING OF LETTERS. HE SERVED HIS APPRENTICESHIP TO AN ENGRAVER IN LONDON, AND AT THE EXPIRY OF HIS TERM AT ONCE BEGAN BUSINESS AT VINE STREET IN THE MINORIES. HERE CHASING OF SILVER AND DESIGNING OF TOOLS FOR BOOKBINDERS GENERALLY, OCCUPIED HIS ATTENTION. WHILE THUS ENGAGED SOME OF HIS BOOKBINDING PUNCHES WERE NOTICED FOR THEIR ACCURACY BY MR. WATTS THE EMINENT PRINTER, WHO, FULLY ALIVE TO THE DEGENERATE STATE OF THE TYPO- GRAPHICAL ART OF THIS COUNTRY, QUICKLY RECOGNISED THE POSSIBILITY OF RAISING IT AGAIN TO ITS PROPER POSITION. WILLIAM CASLON WAS IN THIS WAY THE FOUNDER OF THE FIRM OF H. W. CASLON & CO. LTD., 82 & 83 CHISWELL ST., LONDON, EC. Type by H. W. CASLON & Co., Ltd., London. Old Face 48, 36, 24, and 14 point. Paper " Silurian Wove" The Culler Mills Paper Co., Ltd., Mill No. 9, Peterculter, Aberdeenshire. PLATE XII. Photochromatic Printing Inks Correct Shade and Permanence guaranteed for the Three Colour Process. Art Shades in all colours for HALF TONE WORK. EBONITE Lustre Half Tone Process Black, for Coated Stock and Art Papers. A New Ink on new lines for lustre and effect. Dries im- mediately, allowing the sheets to be handled right away. Special Grade of 'EBONITE* for Supercalendered Papers. This ink is made in three different qualities : 'A'Grade-l/61b. ' B* Grade -l/91b. 'C* Grade -2/-1B. SPECIAL We make a spe- ciality of supplying High Class Dry Colours, and keep a large selection in stock. Please state requirements, and samples and quota- tions will be sent from our Colour Department. We make a speciality also of Varnishes for Letterpress and Lithography, made only from fine old matured Linseed Oil. All consist- encies and quality fully guaranteed. A. B. FLEMING & CO., LTD., CHIEF OFFICES AND WORKS: CAROLINE PARK, EDINBURGH. LONDON OFFICE AND WAREHOUSE: 15 WH1TEFRIARS STREET, E.G. ALL THE COLOUR EFFECTS IN THIS VOLUME WERE PRINTED WITH OUR LETTERPRESS INKS. Paper "White M.K. Printing," W. H. & A. Richardson, Mill No. 91, Springwell Paper Mills, Jarrow-on-Tyne, England. PLATE XIII. Mill No. 91. W. H. & A. RICHARDSON, SPRINGWELL PAPER MILLS, JARROW-ON-TYNE, ENGLAND. Makers of White & Tinted Printings, E.S. Writing and Envelope Papers, Lithos, S.C., and Antique Printings. Cartridges, Duplicatings, Colouring and Gumming Papers in Sheets and Reels. Thick Bulking Esparto, Antique Laid & Wove Book Papers. The raw materials used are Esparto and chemically pre- pared Wood Pulp; no mechanical wood pulp is used. Our machines make paper 68 and 74 inches wide. The papers are packed for export in hydraulically pressed bales or in wooden cases. Our Mills are situated conveniently for the Tyne Ports and Middlesborough - on - Tees, giving special facilities for shipments to India and the Far East, Australia and So. Africa. Our Papers are Supplied through Wholesale Stationers and Paper Merchants only. TELEGRAMS: "RICHARDSON, JARROW," TELEPHONE: No. 2 P.O. JARROW. CODE USED: ABC (5th Edition). Type by STEi'HENsox, BLAKE & Co. and Sir CHARLES REED & SONS, Sheffield. Windsor, 24 point and 14 point; Italian Old Style, 14 point; Italian Old Style Italic, 14 point; Winchester, 8 point. Paper "White M.F. Printing," W. H. & A. Richardson, Mill No. 91, Springwell Paper Mills, Jarrow on-Tyne, England. PLATE XIV. THE CULTER MILLS PAPER COMPANY, Ltd. Manufacturers of Superfine & Antique Printings, Engine- sized and Tub-sized Writings, Imitation Hand -made and Deckle-edged Papers. Plate, Lithographic, Drawing, and Music Papers. White and Tinted Art Papers. Chromos & Enamelled Papers. Cards r Cardboards of every descrip- tion. Cloth -lined Papers and Boards. WORKS: PETERCULTER, ABERDEENSH1RE. MILL No. 9. London Warehouse: 218 Upper Thames St., E.G. TELEGRAPHIC ADDRESSES: NINEMILL,' PETERCULTER. NINEMILL; LONDON. Type by STEPHENSON, BLAKE & Co. and Sir CHARLES REED & SONS, Sheffield. Westminster 24 point and 18 point; Italian Old Style Italic 14 point; Winchester 8 point. Paper " Silurian Wove" The Culler Mills Paper Co., Ltd., Mill No. 9, Peterculter, Aberdeenshire. PLATE XV. MILLER & RICHARD TYPE FOUNDERS REIKIES COURT, NICOLSON ST. EDINBURGH WATER LANE, LUDGATE HILL LONDON, E.C. Supply everything necessary for the Printer, in- cluding Metal and Wood Type, Cases, Chases, Leads, Hard Brass Rule, Galleys, Frames, Racks, Imposing Tables, Furniture Racks, Lead Racks, Forme Racks, Galley Racks, Case Racks, Galley Presses, Printing Presses, Inking Tables, Mitring Machines, Lead Cutters, Roller Frames, Roller Moulds, Platen Machines, Paper Cutting Machines, Label Cutting Machines, Paging and Numbering Machines, Perforating Machines, Stereotyping Apparatus, Wire Stitching Machines, etc., etc. Are also makers of Cylinder Letterpress Machines in 10 sizes, with latest improvements. Type by MILLER & RICHARD Old Style Italic 36, 30, 24, and 18 point. Paper " Featherweight Antique Laid" THE FOURSTONES PAPER MILL Co., LTD., Mill No. 100, South Tyne Mill, Fourstones, Northumberland. PLATE XVI. 4 4 STONES 4 4 Fourstones Featherweight Pure Esparto Antique Laid and Wove Book Papers have a world-wide reputation for their high quality, purity of colour, and printing qualities. These papers are much more bulky than the ordinary antique papers, our standard bulk for Antique Wove 30x40, 60 Ibs., 516 sheets, being equivalent to a thickness of one inch for 320 pages. They are made of pure esparto grass and chemically prepared wood pulp. The machinery employed produces papers up to sixty-five inches wide. These papers may be packed for export in hydraulically pressed bales or wooden cases, and can be shipped from the Tyne shipping ports and Middlesborough. They are supplied by Wholesale Stationers and Paper Merchants only. Telegrams : ' Paper, Fourstones.' THE FOURSTONES PAPER MILL CO., LTD. MILL No. 100 SOUTH TYNE MILL, FOURSTONES NORTHUMBERLAND. Type by H. W. CASLON & Co., Ltd., London. Cheltenham 36, 24, 18, 14, and 10 point. Paper " Featherweight Antique Wove," The Fourstones Paper Mill Co., Mill No. too, Fourstones, Northumberland. matrices and type of William Machlinia, a foreign printer who had been in business in London for about ten years previously. About 1510 he was appointed Royal Printer to Henry VIII., and fully deserved this honour, as his books were more important and better printed than those of de Worde. Prior to 1518 all English printers had used "Black letter" type for the printing of their books. In that year Pynson used Roman type for the printing of Pace's " Oratio in Pace Nuperima " ; he also was the first to introduce diphthongs into the English typographical alphabet. The new form of letter did not meet with immediate favour, and for some time a struggle for the mastery went on between the old form and the new. Some books were printed in which both founts appear, not only on the same page, but often also in the same words. Pynson died about 1530, having printed over three hundred and seventy books. Among the many books which he printed was Terence's " Comoediae Sex," the first Latin classic printed in England, with the exception of a " Cicero " printed at Oxford, of which a fragment only is known to exist. Walter Chepman and Andrew Myllar were Scotland's earliest printers. They were licensed by James IV. in 1507 to set up a press in Edinburgh. Other early Scottish printers were Thomas Davidson and Thomas Bassendyne ; the latter published the first Scottish Bible, which was the first Bible printed in Roman type in Great Britain. CHAPTER THREE. THE EARLY BRITISH TYPEFOUNDERS. [UTENBERG, the inventor of printing, as well as his immediate successors, cut their own punches, made their own matrices, and cast their own type. In the early part of the sixteenth century } however, as the number of printers increased, type-founding as a regular business began to be developed, and periodical markets for the sale of type were held throughout Europe. In England the pioneers of printing, Caxton, Wynkn de Worde, and Pynson, were founders as well as printers, casting type however mostly for their own use. One of the most noted of these founder-printers was John Day, who began business in 1546. He cut founts of Roman, Saxon, and Italic letters, and was the first English founder-printer who cut Roman and Italic letters which would range as one fount. After Day's death, English printers had to depend upon Dutch matrices from which to receive their supplies of type. The year 1585 witnessed a revival of the Oxford University Foundry and Press under Joseph Barnes. During the next century it received two important gifts. Dr John Fell, its Chancellor, in 1677 presented it with a complete foundry, consisting of over seventy sets of punches and matrices for Roman, Italic, Oriental, Saxon, and black letter founts, as well as all the necessary utensils and apparatus requisite for a complete printing office. In the same year Francis Juvinus presented similar gifts to the University. In the middle of the seventeenth century type-founding and printing began to be carried on as separate businesses in England. Joseph Moxon (1659-1683), Robert and Sylvester Andrews (1683-1733), and Thomas and John James (1710-1782) all figure as early English type-founders. Joseph Moxon combined the business of type-founder and printer with that of hydrographer to the King. In 1669 he printed what is supposed to have been the first type-founders' specimen issued in England. Moxon was suc- ceeded by Robert Andrews and his son Sylvester, who had established a 42 43 type-foundry in Oxford. This was purchased in 1733 and removed to London by Thomas James, who had been an apprentice to Robert Andrews, but had left his service before 1710, being joined by his son John at a later date. It does not appear that they cut any punches for themselves ; they depended upon Holland for their supply of matrices. By 1758 James' Foundry had absorbed no fewer than nine of the old English foundries. varying fortunes of the Caslon firm form an interesting chapter in the history of type-founding in England. William Caslon I. (1692-1766) may be said to have been the first English type-founder who whole-heartedly devoted himself to the cutting of punches and the casting of type. Originally an engraver of gun barrels, he attracted the attention of Mr Watts, an eminent printer of his day. This printer, struck by the neatness and taste displayed by Caslon in his engraving, and being in need of a new fount of type, enquired whether he thought he could cut letters for him. After one day's consideration, he replied that he thought he could, and straightway began to cut a series of punches for the type which is now known as Caslon Old Face. It is inter- esting to know that Benjamin Franklin, who later became the well-known American printer, ambassador, and statesman, was at this time a journeyman printer in the service of Mr Watts. The efforts of Caslon gave such satis- faction the type he had produced was so much better than that in common use that the Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge, being in need of a new Arabic fount, commissioned him to cut it for them. In the same year (1720) he cut a Pica Roman and Italic fount. His next perform- ance was a Pica Coptic fount for Dr Wilkins' edition of the Pentateuch. These successful founts soon made him famous, and by 1730 he had eclipsed most of his competitors, and secured the exclusive custom of the King's printer. About 1733 he cut a black letter fount, and in 1734 issued his first specimen from Chiswell Street, and it contained no fewer than thirty-eight founts, all of which, with the exception of three, were from his own hand. These thirty-five founts represented the untiring industry 44 of fourteen years. The production of this specimen placed Caslon at the head of his profession, and his type was regarded as the standard. It was illustrated in the second edition of Ephraim Chambers's Cyclopaedia in 1738. In 1739 Caslon purchased half of Robert Mitchell's matrices, the other half being bought by John James. In 1742 Caslon assumed his eldest son, Wm. Caslon II., as a partner, and in the specimen of the same year the firm appears as Wm. Caslon & Son. Caslon II. was as expert as his father at punch-cutting, and the following notice appears in " Ames' Typographical Antiquities," published in 1749: "The art seems to be carried to its greatest perfection by William Caslon and his son, who, besides the type of all manner of living languages now by him, has offered to perform the same for the dead, that can be recovered, to the satisfaction of any gentleman desirous of the same." The "Universal Magazine" of June 1750 contains an article on letter-founding, accompanied by a picture of the interior of Caslon's Foundry. The print includes representations of four casters at work, one rubber (Joseph Jackson), and one dresser (Thomas Cottrell). Punch-cutting and justifying was carried on in secret by the Caslons themselves, but Jackson and Cottrell found means to observe them at work, and learned for themselves the manual part of the "art and mystery." In the year 1757 a movement for higher wages was made by the men in Caslon's employment. The increase of wages was granted, but Jackson and Cottrell, the ringleaders, were dismissed. In the specimen of 1764 eighty-two different founts were illustrated, more than twice as many as had been shown in the specimen of 1734. Most of the new founts had been cut by Caslon II. Caslon I. was in many ways a cultured man, being extremely fond of music. He was married three times. His first family consisted of one daughter and two sons William, who succeeded him, and Thomas, who became an eminent bookseller. Caslon I. died at Bethnal Green on January 23, 1766, aged seventy-four. In 1766 Caslon II., who had succeeded to the business on the death of his father, issued a specimen on the title-page of which the original name of Wm. Caslon appears. Caslon II. died in 1778, aged fifty-eight, leaving the business to his son William (Caslon III.). In 1792 Caslon III. disposed of his interest in Chiswell Street to his mother and sister-in-law. Mrs Caslon senior died 45 in 1795, and as her will was the object of some litigation, the estate was thrown into Chancery, and the foundry put up to auction. It was bought by Mrs Henry Caslon for 520, whereas seven years previously one-third share of the concern had been sold for 3000. In buying the foundry, Mrs Henry Caslon determined to revive the business, and for this purpose secured the services of Mr John Isaac Drury, who cut new Canon, Pica, and Double Pica founts. At the same time, Mr Nathaniel Catherwood, a distant relative, was introduced as a partner. By 1808 the foundry had regained its former position. Both Mrs Henry Caslon and Mr Catherwood died in 1809. In 1802 the firm appeared as Caslon & Catherwood, but in 1809 it was styled Wm. Caslon & Son once more. From 1814 to 1821 the partnership included John James Catherwood, brother of a former partner. From 1830 to 1834 it was styled Caslon & Livermore, then in 1839, Caslon Son and Livermore ; in 1846 Caslon & Son ; and in 1850, H. W. Caslon & Co., Ltd. the name by which it is now so widely known. HEN, in 1757, Wm. Caslon I. summarily dismissed his two workmen, Joseph Jackson and Thomas Cottrell, he little thought that his action would lead to the starting of two new businesses, which would develop into rivals of his own and his successors. Thos. Cottrell started as a type-founder in 1757, and had associated with him for some time, Joseph Jackson, his unfortunate coadjutor. Cottrell's business eventually developed into that of Sir Charles Reed & Sons, while Jackson's foundry, established in 1763, at length became that of Stephenson, Blake & Co., both firms being joined under the same management in 1906. The story of the ups and downs of these firms would be too lengthy for narration in such a work as this, but it may be interesting to relate that the foundries, or at least the punches and matrices of about a dozen concerns were absorbed by Thos. Cottrell's successors. These belonged to Joseph Moxon, 1659-1683 ; R. & S. Andrews, 1683-1733 ; Thomas & John James, 1710-1782 ; Fry and Pine, 1764-1776 ; Joseph Fry & Co., 1776-1782 ; Edmund Fry & Co., 4 6 1782-1794 ; Edmund Fry and Isaac Steele, 1794-1799 ; Fry, Steele & Co., 1799-1808 ; and Edmund Fry & Son, 1816-1829, at which date William Thorowgood, who was the then living successor of Thos. Cottrell, took over the business of Edmund Fry & Son, then known as the Polyglot Letter Foundry. In 1838 the style of the firm was Thorowgood & Besley ; in 1849, Besley & Co. ; in 1861, Reed & Fox; and in 1877, Sir Charles Reed & Sons. The foundry started by Joseph Jackson in 1763 was put up to auction after his death in 1792, and was acquired by Caslon III., who had left the Chiswell Street firm. In 1807 it belonged to Wm. Caslon, Junior, son of Caslon III. In 1819, Wm. Caslon, Junior, disposed of the foundry to Blake, Garnett & Co., who had become partners for the purpose of acquiring it, and the entire stock was removed to Sheffield. In 1830 the firm was known as Blake & Stephenson, while in 1841, it went under the style of Stephenson, Blake & Co., the name which, in association with Sir Charles Reed & Son, it now bears. An obituary notice of Thomas Cottrell, written by his friend Nicols, throws a curious light upon the usages of the time, and is as follows : " Mr Cottrell died, I am sorry to add not in affluent circumstances, though to his profession of a letter founder, were superadded that of a doctor for the toothache, which he cured by burning the ear ! " It is interesting to notice that many of the early type-founders forsook other occupations to follow that of punch-cutting. Joseph Moxon was a hydrographer ; Caslon I. was an engraver of gun barrels ; Alex. Wilson of St Andrews, the first Scotch type-founder, and Joseph and Edmund Fry were all doctors, while John Baskerville of Birmingham was successively a footman, a writing master, a printer, and finally a type-founder. Baskerville seems to have been in many ways a remarkable man. He spent six years of effort and over 600 in improving the typography of his own day. He made everything required for his business, punches, matrices, type, ink, and even printing presses. His type was of beautiful and elegant form ; and the issue in 1757 of the first book printed with it (Virgil) was hailed with delight by the entire literary world. This was not sufficient, however, to compensate him for 47 the years of labour he had spent on his founts. The printers of his own day preferred the bold Caslon Old Face, which had taken them by storm. He spared no effort to bring his founts into the market, but without success. His entire stock of type-punches and matrices were eventually purchased by Beaumarchais for the " Societe Litteraire Typographique " for 3,700, and transferred to France. SCOTTISH printers received their supplies of type in the early days of printing from Holland. The first Scottish type-founder was Alex. Wilson, a native of St Andrews, who migrated to London in 1737 as an assistant apothecary. Accompanied by a friend, he was conducted over a type foundry there, and, thinking he could improve upon the current methods of type-founding, he started, along with a Mr Baine, a type foundry in his native town in 1742. The business prospered to such an extent, that the foundry was soon removed to Camlachie, a small village near Glasgow. While in Glasgow, Wilson formed many friendships with the professors of the University there, and also with Robert and Andrew Foulis, the University printers. He is probably best known by the magnificent founts of Greek letters which he cut, and which were used for the splendid edition of the Greek classics issued by the University. In 1834 the Glasgow Type Foundry, as it was called, was transferred to London. In 1845 the firm became bankrupt, and most of the punches and matrices were bought by the Caslons. William Miller, a foreman in the Glasgow Foundry, started business in Edinburgh in 1809 as Wm. Miller & Co. In 1822 the title of the firm was changed to William Miller. In 1832 Mr Richard was admitted as a partner, the firm again becoming Wm. Miller & Co. In 1838 it was styled Miller and Richard. To this firm belongs the credit of being the first British Foundry to successfully introduce machines for casting type. William Miller died in 1843. Mr Richard and his son carried on the business till 1868 when Mr Richard, senior, retired, the conduct of the business devolving upon Mr J. M. Richard and Mr W. M. Richard, whose sons are the present proprietors. Messrs Miller & Richard are now the only type-founders in Scotland. CHAPTER FOUR ANALYSIS OF TYPE-FACES. ROMAN, ITALIC, BLACK-LETTER. A comparison of the four A's shown on this page will reveal several differences as well as similarities. Ai is a pen-made letter, similar in form to those used by the penmen of the first few centuries of the Christian Era. It is introduced here for comparison with the three other ^L A A's, which are type letters. Throughout the analysis of 2 \ /~\^ this series the order will remain the same the left-hand top letters being pen forms of the period mentioned, while A A . the right-hand top letters are 48 point Old Face, the left- / X / m hand lower letters are Cheltenham Old Face, and the "^^ right-hand lower letters are Old Face Heavy, all from FIG - I4> the foundry of Messrs H. W. Caslon & Co., Ltd., London. The general forms of all four examples are similar. The letters differ from each other, however, in their general proportions of width and height, as well as in the relations which exist between the thick and thin members of each letter, or as Dutch printers call them, the fats and leans. As these relations are uniform throughout each series, it will not be necessary to refer to them when considering the other letters. The length and form of serifs have a great influence in determining the appearance of different founts. Notice the weight of the serif in the thin member of A4 ; this is, of course, in harmony with the bold and heavy appearance of the whole letter. In A3 the serifs are less heavy, and finish in thick terminations, quite unlike the sharp finish of those in Aa. The position of the cross-bar also varies in the three examples, and the forms of the beginnings of the thick members are also different from each other. Attention may be drawn to the relative quantities of white and black in each of the three letters. This is dependent largely upon the relative weights of the thick and thin members. In A 2 and A3 a light effect is produced, because the enclosed white spaces are large in relation 4 8 49 to the quantity of black surrounding them. In A4 the white spaces are small in relation to the black ; this has produced a heavy effect, and is of course intentional. The horizontal beginning in Ai is produced by the use of the reed-pen or quill, and is different from the same feature in A 2, A3, and A4, though these forms had doubtless their origin also in the use of a pen. The tendency to alter the form of the capitals, owing to the necessity for increased speed in writing, is noticeable in Bi, which FIG - 1 S- i r> r TIL FIG. 16. is an early Roman pen form. The upper bow has become smaller and narrower. The original proportion of the two bows has been restored in Ba, 3, and 4. The relation between the width and the height of these letters is varied, 63 being the narrowest. The heavy effect owing to the great disproportion between thicks and thins in fount 4 is very evident in 64, where the enclosed spaces are little wider than the thicks of the several members. It will be seen that Ci has no serifs, while Cz and 04 have two and 3 one only. In Ci the thick beginning of the curve is formed by the broad nibs of the pen, and the movement from right to left causes the nib in the inside of the curve to cross to the outside, producing in its course a narrowing and subsequently a broadening of the stroke till it attains its greatest breadth midway down the curve, D^^ after which it gradually becomes narrower I . I A _J towards the finish. The gradual thickening \ ^ \. J and thinning of all the curves in the other D~^ rottnd capitals is caused in the same way. I ^ ^ 03 approaches most nearly the form of the |"i -* ^ pen written Ci. In Ca and C4 the serifs at * "* FIG. 17. (.fog beginnings and ends are very pronounced. The D's call for little comment. Beyond the general differences which pertain to the individual character of the founts of which they are members, they are to all intents and purposes identical. It may be stated as a general F 5 principle that letters of simple elementary form, such as C, D, H, I, O, etc., offer the designer of type little opportunity to improve or degrade their forms. There are very considerable differences in the shapes of the four E's shown. This is a letter which, on account F|_J of the number and position of its parts, is | *V | A open to a variety of treatments at the hands ^J \^J _ _ of the type-designer. Originally a narrow ^^^^ [ j^ letter, as in El, it has been expanded in [^ M Ea, 3, and 4. Other differences are also l^J^ W evident. Its three horizontal members in FIG. 19. _ ..... i , FIG - 20 - hi are uniform in length, while in the type forms Ea, 3, and 4, the central bar has been shortened and the upper and lower bars lengthened. In 3 and 4 the lowest bars are longer than the upper ones. The serifs in 3 and 4 are in H sharp contrast to each other, the short stumpy L A serifs of 3 occupying a small space in com- 4 K parison with those of 4, which seem to take Hup a large part of the space at the right-hand side of the letter. The differences between the characters of the vertical, horizontal, and sloping serifs of 4 J should be noticed. The features of F are naturally similar to those of E. In the examples of G's shown, the form of Ga follows that of the pen-written Gi. In 63 the shape of the letter has undergone considerable alteration. It is narrower, and in the characteristic feature of the letter (the short vertical stroke) the serif J projects to the inside only, while the lower end of the curve is extended outwards, to com- pensate, as it were, for the want of the half FIG 27. FIG. 24. serif which should normally be above it. In G4 it will be noticed that the short vertical member is split at the lower end, a form common in modern Roman founts, and one which was 5* probably adopted from Gothic letters, in some alphabets of which it is a very pronounced feature. H and I are two letters which show practically no change in the L different examples shown. H4 appears much narrower than the others, but is A^ ^ /I \ J in reality the same width as Ha ; the * w \. L V A apparent narrowness is caused by the L extreme thickness of the verticals, a TV /f feature common in this fount. A close \J I * * scrutiny of the serifs of the four I's will * " A FIG. 25. show that each of these is distinctive in length and character. As is well known, the letter J is a later addition to the alphabet. The forms of J exhibited show some NT^k variety. While Ja and 4 finish upon the ^| writing-line, J3 descends below it. The K's illustrated are approximately ^k |^^ the same width, though K.4, owing to f"^L M ^^ ^1 ^fcj the heaviness of its members, appears I J V much narrower than the other two. FIG. 27. v j r . , FIG. 28. Ka and 4 suggest pen forms in the terminations of their third members ; the same serif in K-3 extends on both sides of this member. The type forms of La, 3, and 4 are much wider ^^ than the original pen form Li, which is a 1^ |/ narrow letter. The Roman incised M used I A in the Trajan inscription has no serifs at the beginnings of its thick members, while 1 ~\ ~] "^ the first and fourth members are sloping. These sloping members were retained by "" the scribes as shown in Mi. In Ma, 3, and 4 the first and fourth members are FIG - vertical. It may be worth while pointing out that the beginning serifs in Ma, 3, and 4 are halved, extending outwards only. 52 In all its features N follows the same character as those of M. N% is the narrowest of the examples shown. With the exception of the difference between the relations of thicks and thins in the different O's, they are all similar in form. The P's call for R) little comment. The bow of P% is squarer in X.X*. character than those of the others, being com- posed of horizontals and a curve, while the R"^ bows in Pi, 2, and 4 are composed of curves f^L only. The hand of the type-founder is -* " apparent in Qa, 3, and 4. In the pen-written form Qi we see in the pen flourish so charac- teristic of it, evidence of the delight of the scribe in his craft. In 03, which harks back to an early form, a compromise has been made, and the fullest advantage has been taken of Tthe beard for the inclusion of the longest tail possible on the type body. I) The form of the pen- written R i has Tr ^ been well adhered to in the type forms Ra, 3, and 4. In each of these the ~^^ third member is straight, a form which ^^ -> ^ IG. 33- gives an appearance of strength as com- lGl M pared with the curved third member used in modern Roman founts. 83 differs from the others in that its lower is distinctly larger than its upper half. In the other examples ^7 \ 7 the two halves are apparently the \ A / ^^ \ same size. \ \ The forms of serifs and the W relative thickness of the members "\ ^^ T ^L 1^ / mark the only differences between \/\/ T T the four T's illustrated. FIG> 35 ' Neither the U's nor V's call for any notice. The double V or double U, as it is now called, is one of the latest X 7 ^kT" A 53 additions ; hence its inclusion near the end of the alphabet. Its origin is self-evident ; it used to be sometimes printed thus W, and W"3 shows the two V's quite distinctly. X, Y, and Z exhibit the characteristics of the three founts from which they are taken. Otherwise they are essentially the same in their root forms. The " and " or " ampersand," as it used to be called, was originally a contraction for the phrase " et per se " (and by itself). This was later corrupted into " and per se and," then finally into ampersand or amperzand ; it is now commonly called "and," the former part of the corrupted form having been dropped. It is difficult to see the con- nection between the forms shown in &2, 3, and 4, and the contraction et ; this, however, is quite evident in the letters E and T thus & in the Italic form. Some particulars in reference to the three faces just discussed may be of interest. Caslon Old Face (No. 2) was designed and engraved by William Caslon I. The earliest founts of the series, both Roman and Italic, were issued in 1720, and all the others of this series were completed by 1730. Cheltenham Old Style (No. 3) was designed by Mr Ingalls Kimball for the Cheltenham Press, New York, and was first engraved and issued by the American Type Foundry Co. of New York in 1900. The peculiarity of this series is the long ascenders and short descenders. Old Face Heavy (No. 4) is an imperfect reproduction in the lower-case forms, on a heavier scale, of Caslon Old Face ; it was cut and issued by the Inland Type Foundry, FIG. 39- St Louis, U.S.A., in 1908. Old Face, Old FIG ' 40> Face Heavy, and Cheltenham are issued by H. W. Caslon & Co., Ltd., London. All the other alphabets analysed and illustrated in this chapter are from the foundries of the following British Firms : H. W. Caslon & Co., Ltd., London ; Miller & Richard, Edinburgh ; and Stephenson, Blake & Co. and Sir Charles Reed & Sons, Sheffield. Z && 54 1 HE features which taken together make up the character of lower-case letters, are different from those which give individuality to the capitals of the same founts. In the case of the capitals the proportions of width to height, and of thicks to thins determine their character. In the lower-case forms, the lengths of ascenders and descenders, along with the forms of beginnings and finishings, are important elements. Attention has already been directed at some length to the evolution of the lower-case or small letters from capitals during the course of many centuries. In the progress of this evolution, and owing to accelerated speed in writing, there was a tendency to join letters, one to the other ; this reduced to a minimum the lifting of the pen, and was a consequent saving of the penman's time. Some letters such as a, c, e, and t still bear traces of these joinings or connections ; in fact most lower-case letters give evidence that at one time they were " cursive " in form, i.e., rapidly written. The loops seen in b, f, g, h, j, k, 1, q, and y in ordinary writing owe their form to the same necessity. In analysing the forms of the Old Face lower-case letters illustrated (Fig. 41), it may be advantageous to consider in the first place the beginnings of the letters b, d, h, k, 1, whose ascenders are full height and commence from the left. Each of these beginnings consists of a short upward sloping stroke, a natural serif, which suggests the remnant of a connecting link with the previous letter ; t has a similar commencement, which is almost hidden by the cross - bar immediately below it. The half-height letters i, m, n, and r have like beginnings, and also the descending letters j and p. c and f have beginnings similar to each abcdefg hijklmn opq r s t u v wxy z OLD FACE Lower-case 48 Point. Messrs H, W. Caslon & Co. , Ltd. , London. FIG. 41. 55 other. These commence at the right-hand side, and are quite different from those already described. Such forms now appear with rounded beginnings, whereas in the pen forms they were square. The graduated curves were produced by the alteration of the inside nib of the pen to the outside position. The commencement of a is similar to those of c and f, but begins at the left side. The commencements of g, o, and q are not apparent, as they occur on the circle common to them all ; the beginnings of g and o are covered by the joints, and those of q and p also by the straight members, e and s occupy classes by themselves, e begins by a horizontal line on the inside of the curve. In the pen-written form of s the beginning was similar to that still seen in f and c ; the form of the s in this fount, however, is exactly the same as a capital S, having similar serifs both at the beginning and at the termination of its form. v, w, x, and z are exactly the same as in the capital forms, y has a commencement like capital Y. u is distinct from all the other letters both in its beginning and ending ; in fact it looks very much like an n turned upside down, except that the beginnings of the two thick members are half instead of whole serifs. It would be interesting to enquire why this lower-case u is out of harmony with the other lower- case letters of this fount. Many of the early printers and type-founders used this form, especially those of Northern Europe, whereas most of the Italian type-founders produced a u in harmony with the rest of the letters, /.., having sloping upper serifs and a horizontal lower one. As this latter form of u originated in Italy, where the first Roman fount was cut, there is some excuse for thinking that the inverted n form is not the appropriate one, and a too strong attachment to tradition may account for it being still in use. CHELTENHAM OLD STYLE Lower-case Letters, rni r 48 Point - The terminations of a, c, e, and t . r . , r . , . , H. W. Caslon & Co., Ltd., London. have already been referred to. In these FIG . ^ abcdefghij klmnopqr stuvwxyz 56 letters we see indications that before the invention of printing these letters were joined to those following. The letters f, h, i, k, 1, m, n, p, q, and r have horizontal serifs at the endings of their principal members. The second members of d and u finish in upward sloping serifs, which seem to suggest attenuated connecting links to the next letters. j and y finish as a, c, and f begin, that is, in a ball or thickened knob. The curious ending of g has already been referred to in connection with the evolution of lower- case letters. The peculiar projecting member finishing in a knob to be seen on the right side of g is an attenuated pen-dash. The finishing serifs of d and u are similar. In the analysis of the forms of Old Face Caslon (Fig. 42) attention was drawn to the slanted beginnings of the principal members of the letters of that face. The same beginnings in the lower-case letters of Cheltenham are horizontal. In b, d, h, k, and 1 (ascending letters), i, m, n, r, and u (half size letters), and j and p (descending letters), the beginnings are from the left and are horizontal. Not only so, but the finishings as well as the beginnings are nearly all horizontal also. Notice that the beginnings are half serifs, while all the endings are whole serifs except those of d, q, and u. The reason for the first and last is easily understood, but not for the finishing serif in q, which should normally be the same as that of p. The principal characteristic of this whole fount, both capitals and lower-case, is the slight difference evident between the thicks and thins. Besides this general feature one notices individual peculiarities in some of the lower-case letters. f, for instance, is extremely narrow, and is full height where it is usually made only three-quarters. The shortness of all the descenders in relation to the length of all the ascenders is characteristic of the whole of the lower-case letters of the fount. This statement is made neither in condemnation nor in praise ; the peculiarity is simply pointed out as being the means of producing a certain character which is evident in the fount. The g is unusual, though it has a good historic basis for its form. Notice the way that the second member of r rises above the writing line. s begins and finishes in two balls or knobs, while t has no beginning serif. PLATE XVII. , mmm TA YLOR gg AND W 'A T KIN SON ARE THE BIGGEST MAKERS OF . MACHINE CAST AND PLANED Printers Leads & Clumps IN THE WORLD. CONTRACTORS TO H.M. GOVERNMENT. WORKS: BELGRAVE FOUNDRY, NEW BRIGGATE, LEEDS. Telephone : Code, ABC Telegrams : 4001 Central. (Fifth Edition). " Pica." Leeds. Type by H. W. CASLON & Co., Ltd., London. Cheltenham Old Style Italic, 48 and 24 point. Cheltenham Old Style, 36, 30, 24, 14, and 10 point. Paper S. Jones & Co., 7 Bridewell Place, London, E.G. 1 Bramble Rideau Cover," stocked in 18 x 23, 40 Ibs. ; 2oJ x 25$, 50 Ibs. ; zoj x soj, 60 Ibs. ; 23 x 36, 80 Ibs ; at 3$d. per lb., 5 %. 480 sheets to the ream. PLATE XVIII. POMEGRANATE ORNAMENTS. Seven units employed in the formation of Pomegranate Ornaments. Ten Ornaments composed of Pomegranate units repeated. Ornaments by H. W. CASLON & Co., Ltd., 8a and 83 Chiswell Street, London, E.C. Printed upon S. JONES * Co.'S "Primrose Camber Cover," stocked in 18x23, 4 8 Iks. ! 20x25, 58 Ibs. ; 20.^x30^, 72 Ibs. 23x36, 96 Ibs. ; at 3d. per lb., 5%. PLATE XIX. ESTABLISHED 1853. DANE&CO. MANUFACTURERS OF LITHOGRAPHIC AND LETTERPRESS INKS, DIE PRESS INKS, DRY COLOURS, VARNISHES, PRINTERS' SUNDRIES. LONDON (OFFICES) 91 and 92 SHOE LANE. 'Phone: 1930 Holborn. EDINBURGH (OFFICES) 3 EAST REGISTER ST. 'Phone: 1126 Central. BELGIUM (AGENT) AUGUSTE DESMET, Rue Aux Choux 56, BRUSSELS. STRATFORD, E. (FACTORY) SUGAR HOUSE LANE. 'Phone: 514 Stratford. AUSTRALIA (AGENTS) SPICER BROTHERS (Colonial and Foreign) Ltd. HOLLAND (AGENT) AUGUSTE DESMET, 155 Warmoesstraat, AMSTERDAM. Dane & Co.'s Book Black Ink No. Z219 was used throughout this Publication. Type by H. W. CASLON & Co., Ltd., London. Old Face 48 point; Cheltenham 24, 12, and 10 point. Paper S. JONES & Co., 7 Bridewell Place, London, E.G. 'White Camber Cover," stocked in 18x23, 4 8 lbs - : 20x25. S 8 lt>s - ! aojxjoj, 72 Ibs. ; 23x36, 96 Ibs. ; at 3d. per Ib. 5%. 504 sheets to the ream. PLATE XX. PATTERNS COMPOSED OF REPEATED UNITS. Five Thistle Units employed in the formation of the patterns below and also on Plate XXI. One Unit repeated. Two Units repeated. One Unit repeated. Two Units repeated". One Unit repeated. rch Rideau C PLATE XXI. lrC'.St.lJ \Jr b Two units repeated. Three units repeated. unit repeated. Two units repeated. PLATE XXII. ESTABLISHED OVER A CENTURY. Samuel Jones & Go. 7 BRIDEWELL PLACE LONDON, E.C. MAKERS OF patent Ifton^curling (3ummeb flbaper GOLD, SILVER, AND COLOURED FOIL PAPERS STAY PAPERS AND TAG WASHER MANILLAS CAMBER AND RIDEAU COVER PAPERS DUALIOMANIN TRANSFER PAPERS FLINT AND STEEL BLUE PAPERS IMITATION GELATINE PAPERS SURFACE AND ENAMEL PAPERS LEATHER & CALF PAPERS ENAMELLED BLOTTING LINEN FACED BANKS GUMMED PAPER TAPE SEALING MACHINES :: :: LABEL CLOTH :: :: ON RECEIPT OF A POST CARD WE WILL GLADLY SEND A COMPLETE SET OF OUR SAMPLES. Works: CAMBERWELL Agent for Scotland : JOHN B. MACNAUGHTON, 74 YORK STREET, GLASGOW. This is printed upon our White Camber Cover, stocked in 18x13, 4* Ibs. ; 20x25, 58 Ibs. ; 20.1x30;, 71 Ibs. ; 23x36, 96 Ibs,, at 3d. per Ib 5% Type by MILLER & RICHARD, Edinburgh and London Old Style Antique, No. 7 (Roman and Italic), and Tudor Black; Brass Rules, 5 Point, No. 13, and 8 Point, No. 66. PLATE XXIII. DIAPERS OR ALL-OVER PAT i A. Open Diaper, one type unit repeated. ;; 3] . a L vj K a r~] BUI mj* r~r?\ >L - rilJlir^ tFrl rTli *Jr; "^- V" fu . i: I Close Diaper, one type unit repeated. C. Close Diaper, two type units repeated. PLATE XXIV. BORDERS. ') THE ENTIRE SERIES OF ORNAMENTS & ORNAMENTAL INI- TIALS USED IN THIS BOOK WILL BE ISSUED BY H. W. CASLON & Co LTD 82&85CHISVELL ) ST., LONDON, E.C. rder composed of one type unit repeated. SOCIETY GEORGE PROGRAMME OF ARRANGEMENTS SESSION 1911-12 Hrte-J JH1 ELGIN CELTIC CLUB i -J ;. ^KF^ SESSION 1911-12 LhJTEJ B. Border composed of two type units repeated. ESTABLISHED IN THE REIGN OF GEORGE I. H.W. CASLON Co. LIMITED : TYPE FOUNDERS AND PRINTING MATERIAL MANUFACTURERS 82 & 83 CHISWELLST. LONDON, E.G. ENG LAND dler composed of r aits repeated. Type and Ornaments by H. W. CASLON & Co., Ltd., 82-83 Chiswell Street, London. Paper S. Jones & Co., 7 Bridewell Place, London, E.G. " Bramble Rideau Cover," stocked in 18 x 23, 40 Ibs. ; 2oJ x 2sJ, 50 Ibs. ; zoj x 30^, 60 Ibs. ; 23 x 36, So Ibs. ; at 3J,d. per lb. t 5 %. 480 sheets to the ream. abcdefg ijklmn opqrstu v wxy z OLD FACE HEAVY Lower-case, 48 Point. H. W. Caslon & Co., Ltd., London, FIG. 43- 57 Beyond the necessary differences in the proportionate relations of black and white in this lower-case fount, the letters ^ ^ -tf are practically the same as Old Face, 1^% -* ** l^y I fY^ ^^ upon which the fount is based. The AAA I .Am. A AAA AA shortness of the descenders in g, j, p, q, and y might be noticed, while the pen- dash usually found to the right of g rises upwards from the centre of the circular part of the letter. This fount is useful for any printing which must be readable at some distance. It is excellent in form, clear and distinct in character, but cannot compete for grace with the fount of which it is a near though less elegant relation. For pure dignity and legibility, Old Style is unapproachable. A careful comparison of similar founts by different founders reveals only minor differences. These are mostly in relation to the pro- portionate breadths of thicks and thins, and while this feature affects the character of the letters, it does so to a limited extent only. The great differences in style are brought about principally by the proportions of the letters, the form of the rounded parts, and the character of the serifs. In the fount before us, particular attention might be called to the pleasing forms of C, D, M, N, S, T - Z, forms which in their essentials are closely allied to early Roman characters, upon which all modern type is based. It will be noticed that O A BC D E F G H I J K L M N O P R S T U V W X Y Z abcdefghi j k 1 m n o p q r stuvwxyz LINING OLD STYLE NO. 5. 24 Point. Stephenson, Blake & Co. and Sir Charles Reed & Sons, Sheffield. FIG. 44. G 58 and Q are elliptical rather than circular, and that the fourth member of E is longer than the second, which is longer than the third ; in the early forms those three were similar in length. There is a tendency to uniformity of width of capitals in this particular alphabet, which is common to all old style founts. This is especially noticeable in E, which is wider than the normal, and in H, O, and Q, which are narrower than normal. The capitals of this fount have already been referred to as the acme of dignity and legibility. The same can be truly said of the lower-case letters. Like all forms which have persistently held their own against the march of time and invention, they cannot but contain within themselves much that is eminently legible as well as beautiful. Particular attention might be directed to the length of the ascenders and descenders in relation to the depth of the writing line, and though the descenders of p and q are rather shorter than the normal, these letters are perfectly legible, and fine in form. The termina- Qry O r ^ tion of j is quaint and effective. A V. ^J JL \^J The forms in Fig. 45 are very beautiful, and almost defy analysis. A cursory comparison between them and those of old style would reveal few differences. An individual examination of the letters and especially of the thick members and serifs is necessary in attempting to say what really gives the fount its character. The main pro- portions and forms of the letters are identical, but the forms of the thick members are less mathematical and more subtle than the same features of an old 4S> style fount. Notice that the upper serifs, ABCCDE FGHIJK LMNOP RSTU VWXYZ abcdefghi jklmnopq rstuvwxyz BASKERVILLE 36 Point. Stephcnson, Blake & Co. and Sir Charles Reed & Sons, Sheffield. ABCDEFG HIJKLMN OPQRST UVWXYZ abcdefghij k 1 m n o p q r stuvwxyz BASKERVILLE 30 Point. H. W, Caslon & Co., Ltd., London. FIG. 46. The fount in Fig. 46 is very pure and distinctive. Some of the capital letters are unusually fine in form, partic- ularly the D, Q, and S. The third member of R is unfortunate in shape. All the lower-case letters are of good shape and very legible. This fount of Baskerville was engraved and issued by H. W. Caslon & Co., Ltd., from French designs, in 1909. The distinguishing features of this fount (Fig. 47) are the slight difference which exists between the widths of the thicks and of the thins, and the exces- sively heavy serifs. The serifs finish squarely on their ends, and are not 59 especially of M and N, are slightly curved instead of being quite straight, and that the lower serifs join on very gradually to the main members, g is the most distinctive form among the lower-case letters. This fount was first issued by John Baskerville of Birmingham about the middle of the i8th century. ABCDEF GHIJKL M NOPQ RS T U V W X Y Z a b c d e f g h i j k 1 m n o p q r stuvwxyz OLD STYLE ANTIQUE No. 7, 36 Point. Miller & Richard, Edinburgh. FIG. 47- 6o graduated in their joinings to the members to which they are attached, except where they are sloping as in E, F, T, and Z. Most of the letters are good in form and satisfactory in proportion. The characteristics of the lower-case letters of this fount are the size and weight of the serifs, and the small variety in the thickness of the various members composing them. Each of the letters is clear and distinct in form, and well proportioned. This fount was first issued about 1865. Italian Old Style is a fount in which the widths of the various letters are approximately similar, while the thicks and thins also are nearly uniform. It is also distinguished by thick serifs of square character, which give the impression of having been added abruptly, y^ R f] [j p* p (j- J-J as if no attempt had been made to produce suave joinings. These charac- J^ L, j\/[ J^ \J * Q) \ teristics have produced a fount which, ^ f while not without character, has an 1 LJ V \V 1\, I '* unrefined and unfinished air about it. Several letters, such as Q, R, and T, call for special attention. Notice the peculiar form of the tail of the Q. It seems to have intended to remain un- ITALIAN OLD STYLE, 24 Point. compromisingly upright, but afterwards Stephen**, Blake & Co and Sir Charles Reed & Sons, changed its mind and its direction (to Sheffield. the right). The third member of R FIG. 4' has a certain springy appearance about it, caused by its termination in a sharp point, rather than in a serif, which is the usual ending of such a member. In the T the upper serifs both point towards the left, instead of following the usual practice of pointing left and right. The bows B, P, and R are expanded so that they are much wider from side to side than from top to bottom, that is, the enclosed space is bounded by a semi-circle and two horizontal lines. The lower-case letters of this fount have all the family characteristics. The serifs both at beginnings and endings show a wide variety of forms. b, d, h, i, j, k, 1, m, n, p, r, u, and z have beginning serifs which slope, 6i while w, x, and y as usual have horizontal beginning serifs. t has no beginning serif. The endings are still more varied ; three forms are used. a, c, e, and t have link endings as usual, f, h, i, k, 1, m, n, p, q, and r have horizontal serif-endings, while the lower serifs of d, u, and z slope upwards. The fount was first issued in 1896. Lining Antique Roman is a fount composed of well proportioned letters of heavy form, whose members are as nearly as possible of uniform thickness. Very considerable differences of widths exist between the various letters, though some of them, such as B, E, F, and L, might have been of better form had they been slightly narrower. The lower- case letters are particularly good in form. The fount was first issued in 1895. Antique Old Style (Fig. 50) is a very distinctive and effective fount of Old Style letters, especially useful where emphasis is required. A certain heavi- ness is evident in this fount, due largely to the slight difference which exists between the thicks and thins, and also to the uncompromising squareness of the serifs. It will be noticed that in the lower-case letters, the ascenders and descenders are unusually short. This fount was engraved and issued by the Inland Type Foundry, St Louis, U.S.A., in 1902. Lining Winchester (Fig. 51) is a fount both distinctive and of good form, though the letters are rather narrower than the normal and as nearly ABODE FGHIJK LMNOP QRSTU VWXYZ abcdefg hijklmn opqrstu v w x y z ANTIQUE ROMAN 36 Point Stephenson, Blake & Co. and Sir Charles Reed & Sons, Sheffield, FIG. 49. ABCDEFG HIJKLMN OPQRSTU V W X Y Z abcdefghij k 1 m n o p q r stuvwxyz ANTIQUE OLD STYLE 30 Point. H. W. Caslon & Co., Ltd., London. 62 uniform in width as possible. The difference between the thicks and thins is no more than noticeable, while the serifs are of a form very appropriate to the general character of the letter. Special characteristic features are evident in the lower-case forms, in the begin- nings of a, c, and f, and in the terminations of g and y. These are usually ball-like in form, but in this fount the forms approach more nearly those naturally made by a reed-pen. Alternate forms of capital C and lower- case r are given. The fount was first issued in 1908. FIG. 50. This is a fount (Fig. 52) where capital forms are rather narrower and more nearly uniform than the normal. The root forms of the letters are identical with those of Winchester, the only differences being in the increased heavi- ness of the members. The fount was first issued in 1909. No fewer than twenty-two of the De Vinne capitals (Fig. 53) are of identical width. This uniformity would be disastrous in a fount where the letters were less open. The shapes of M, R, and S are very distinctive ; the latter appears in alternate forms. The char- acteristics of De Vinne letters are, ABCCDEF GHIJKLM NOPQRST UVWXYZ abcdefghijklmn opqrrstuvwxyz WINCHESTER OLD STYLE 36 Point Stephenson, Blake & Co. and Sir Charles Reed & Sons, Sheffield. FIG. 51. 63 however, more evident in the lower-case forms. It will be noticed that the thickest parts of the curves are not in the middle but under the middle, and this throws the weight of the letter downwards. This is noticeable in certain letters only, such as lower-case c, d, e, and q ; it is not apparent in the other round letters. Thin members in the lower-case letters of this fount are reduced to the minimum. The begin- ning of f and the ending of j are ABCDEFG HIJKLMN OPQRSST UVWXYZ abcdefghij klmnopqrs stuvwxyz DE VINNE 36 Point. Stephenson, Blake & Co. and Sir Charles Reed & Sons, ABCDEFG HIJKLMN OPQRSTU VWXYZ abcdefghij klmnopqrr stuv wxyz WINCHESTER BOLD 36 Point. Stephenson, Blake & Co. and Sir Charles Reed & Sons, Sheffield. FIG. 52. Sheffield. FIG. S3- exceptional forms. The fount was issued in 1893. This fount (Fig. 54), which is composed of well-proportioned letters, is specially characterised by a certain easy freedom in the " drawing " of its members. It is as if the letters had been made by a skilful penman, who at the moment was trying to avoid the " deadly dullness of perfect form," by writing his letters quickly and with 6 4 a little less care than usual. The resultant effect is pleasing, and the fount is of undoubted value for certain kinds of printing. The angularity of the curves is particularly noticeable, as also is the absence of sharp terminations and acuteness at the joinings of the different members. This fount was designed, engraved, and issued by the Inland Type Foundry, St Louis, U.S.A., about 1890. Lining Westminster is a fount very evidently based upon early Roman incised letters, several of the distinctive features of which are introduced. It will be noticed that the widths and relative height of the letters vary very considerably, while the difference between the thicks and thins is hardly perceptible. Most of the serifs are also very short. All of these features are common to the early Roman letters incised in stone. The bows in B, P, and R do not quite join to the vertical members, while the horizontal members of E and F are all of equal length, early forms which have been retained with good effect in this fount. Notice the great width of H, N, and T, and the extreme narrowness of B, P, R, and S, which features are characteristic of early forms, and in distinct contrast to the modern tendency to make all the capital letters approximately the same width. While it is true that a certain uniformity FIG. 55. ABCDEFG HIJKLMN OPQRSTU V WX Y Z abcdefghij klmnopqr stuvwxyz MORLAND 30 Point. H. W. Caslon & Co., Ltd., London. FIG. 54- A H O B C D E F I J K L M P Q R S G N T U V W X Y Z abcdef ghijklmn opqrstuvwxyz LINING WESTMINSTER OLD STYLE, 24 Point. Stephenson. Blake & Co. and Sir Charles Reed & Sons. Sheffield. 65 is necessary in all the capital letters of one fount, this should be restricted to such features as the relations of thicks and thins, and the character of serifs and curves. It must not be forgotten that the proportion of width to height in a letter is one of its most distinguishing features, especially when seen from a distance, so that when the width of a letter is made less or greater than its normal, it loses its characteristic proportion, and therefore becomes less legible a grave weakness where legibility is all-important. Certain pecu- liarities of some of the letters of this fount may be mentioned. Notice the narrowness of the D and K, and the more than normal width of the J, though in the latter case decreased legibility cannot be urged against the broader form. The long upper serifs projecting to right and left only of the M, and the extreme shortness of its second and third members, are worthy of attention, as also are the extreme shortness of the tail of the Q and the convex form of the third member of the R. The form of the W is a real double V, making it a very broad letter. None of the other letters calls for any special remark ; the whole alphabet has a certain quaint pleasing effect, without at the same time having lost any of its legibility. In the lower-case letters of Lining Westminster Old Style the difference between the thicks and thins is hardly perceptible. The main member of a is sloping, a rare feature in modern type forms of this letter, though a very common one in some of the middle-age scripts. The sloping position occupied by the cross-bar of the e and the extreme shortness of the tail of the g are special features. The cross-bars of f and t are unusually lengthy, while the mixed beginning serifs in u are unusual. The fount was first issued in 1905. Lining Carlton (Fig. 56) is a fount of very light and dainty character based upon a very pure form of pen-written letters. Several of the letters have alternate forms, such as A, P, and Y. These variations add a certain piquancy and charm to the fount, which when not overdone has a distinct artistic value. The varieties of the same letter suggest the human element, which is seldom evident in the product of a printing machine. Most of the letters are beautifully proportioned, particularly C, D, G, H A X R f P) F F ** '* ^ ^ ' ' - I GHIIKLMN 66 M, N, O, Q, S, and V to Z. While it is unnecessary to insist too much upon a strict adherence to early standard forms, the sub-divisions of B, P, and R /"~\ T~\ Y~\ / \ P G ~T would not have been any less pleasing YZ UVXY abc o pq rs t u v wxy z LINING CARLTON 30 Point. H. W. Caslon & Co., Ltd., London. FIG. 56. had they been more nearly uniform in size. The letters H and T are narrower than the normal, while the joinings of B, E, F, K, P, and R are all either above or below the middle of the first member. Notice that the third member of E and F is apparently longer than the second ; in reality it is exactly the same length as the second member, together with the sloping serif. The old form of the U, which contains a adhered to. The form of the W is I thick second member, has been particularly chaste. The lower-case letters exhibit the same characteristics of lightness and daintiness as the capitals of the same fount. The skill of the type-designer is taxed in a greater degree when designing lower-case letters than when deciding' upon the forms of capitals. In the fount before us the ascenders and descenders are of abnormal length ; *, r, this is particularly noticeable in the Ik II EUl HH O O If If case of f, which goes below as well as above the writing-line. The unusual length of these parts produces an open ' CHELTENHAM BOLD OUTLINE 30 Point. light character when the type is MessrsH , w. Casion& Co.. Ltd.. London. composed, and this of course is one of FIG S7 IF 67 the characteristics of printing produced by this face. Following the variety of width of letters, already noticed in the capitals of this fount, we 'find that f, k, and r appear specially narrow, while m appears specially broad. The two v's in w are so placed as to produce a narrow letter, which is, however, very pleasing. This fount is of German design, and was produced in the Caslon Letter Foundry in 1910. ABCD EF ABCDEFG HIJKLMN OPQRSTU V WX YZ abcdefghij klmnopqr stuvwxyz HALLAMSHIRE OLD STYLE 36 Point Stephenson, Blake & Co. and Sir Charles Reed & Sons, Sheffield. GHIJKLM NOPQRST UVWXYZ ATHENIAN 30 Point. Stephenson, Blake & Co. and Sir Charles Reed & Sons, Sheffield. FIG. 58. FIG. 59. This fount (Fig. 57) is an outline variation of Cheltenham Bold. Its use in display is appropriate where size without great weight is required. It is clear, legible, and of very good form. Athenian is a fount of clear and legible letters, which are, however, as nearly as possible uniform in width. The difference between the thicks and thins is no more than perceptible, and the serifs are very appropriate. This fount was first issued in 1889. Hallamshire Old Style is a fount having the general proportions of its capitals distinctly narrow. The letters owe little of their character to traditional forms. This is particularly evident in the curves of B, P, R, and S, and in the omission of part of the double V form of W. A disregard for mathematical 68 precision in the drawing of the letters, has allowed an element of freedom to enter into the rendering of the forms, which gives the fount its uncon- ventional character. Notice that the second member of X is not quite straight. In the lower-case forms the great length of the ascenders is very noticeable. The fount was first issued in 1904. The principal characteristics of the capitals of this fount are, the comparative similarity of proportion of the letters, twenty-two of which are practically identical in width, the great dispro- portion between the thicks and thins, and the slenderness, unusual length, and abrupt joinings of the serifs. Charac- teristic details are noticeable in the form of the tails of G and Q, and in the third member of R. The lower-case letters have the same general characteristics. This fount (Fig. 61) lays no claim to artistic consideration, but it is at least legible and distinctive. The members are all of equal thickness throughout, while the letters, with one exception, have no serifs. The white spaces between the members are greater than the thickness of the members them- selves, and this openness increases their legibility. There is also a considerable variety of width in the letters, where no fewer than nine different proportions between width and height exist. As has been already stated, these distinctive proportions increase the legibility of the letters. The one letter of this series which has a serif, is G ; it seems unnecessarily complicated, and would be quite as legible and certainly more appropriate, were the serif dispensed with and the form made as shown (after Z) . ABCDEFG HIJKLMN OPQRSTU VWXYZ abcdefghi jklmnopq rstuvwxyz LINING MODERN No. 20, 36 Point. Steplienson, Blake & Co. and Sir Charles Reed & Sons, Sheffield. FIG. 60. ABODE FG H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V WXYZG GROTESQUE CAPITALS, 36 Point. Miller & Richard, Edinburgh. FIG. 61. 6 9 The capitals of fount illustrated in Fig. 62 defy criticism from any artistic standpoint. Having no variety between its thicks and thins, nor any serifs, it may be said to be the last word in legible lettering. Abandoning the art standpoint and regarding the fount as merely utilitarian, it may be worth while to discuss it purely from this point of view. Having been designed and produced to meet the wants of printers and the clients of printers, who desire the maxi- mum number of words per line of this size, presumably without any loss of legibility, it cannot be said even from this point of view to be a success. In the endeavour to produce such letters, much of their legibility has been sacri- ficed to the exigencies of space. It must be remembered that the characteristic root form of a letter is produced by certain relations which exist between extreme width and height, as well as by the form of its separate parts. In the fount before us, twenty of the letters are identical in width, while four are narrower and two wider than the normal. This alone is sufficient to decrease their legibility, but as the white spaces between the members are also narrower in most cases than the members themselves, they ABCDEFGH JKLMNOPQ R5TUVWXYZ abcdefghijkliun opqrstuvwxyz SANS-SERIF No. 7, 36 Point Miller & Richard, Edinburgh. FIG. 62. 7 o are by this means made still less legible. The height of the characteristically narrow letters E, F, and Q is four times as great as their width, while the wide letters M and W are twice as high as they are wide. Greater legibility and distinctness and the same quantity of copy could have been obtained by using a grotesque fount, say two-thirds the height. The same result might have been reached by using the same pro- portions of letters, but having the members only half as thick. The use of such a fount seems to be an attempt to get too much for too little, an attempt to reap where the sowing has been niggardly. The remarks made in reference to the capitals of this fount apply equally to those of the lower-case. Some of the letters here are unusually unhappy, particularly f, j, and r. Twenty-one of the letters are uniform in width, while three are under, and two over the normal. The fount was first issued in 1906. Old Face Italic, based upon Old Face Roman, was cut by Caslon I. in 1720. The letters are a very close imitation of Roman Old Face, with the alterations necessary for the slope. F j G 63 Italic writing was a script much in use in Italy in the i6th century. The slope existed in this script for the same reason as it exists in modern writing. It is a matter of following the line of least resistance, and, as we write from ABCDEF GHIJ K LMNOP \STTU vwxrz abcdefghij klmnopqr stuvwxyz OLD FACE ITALIC, 48 Point. H. W. Caslon & Co., Ltd., London. 7 1 left to right our writing naturally slopes towards the right. The free character of Italic writing made it deservedly popular among Italian scribes. The writing of books entirely composed of Roman capitals must have been a tedious operation to the penman, who would find in a sloping style more freedom and more opportunity for an occasional flourish to enable him to show his skill, and get off the conventional track once in a while. Some of the letters in the alphabet under review, J, Q, T, Y, show this desire of the scribe for a little freedom. The first fount of Italic was cut for a French printer named Jenson in Venice, and was intended originally for the printing of entire books. This was carried into effect by Jenson, who printed an edition of Virgil entirely in Italic in 1470. Without doubt Italic is a beautiful face, and it is a matter for regret that it is not more extensively used. For verse it is ideal, and as it is eminently readable, and occupies less space than Roman, it ought to appeal to all who attempt to get as much printing as possible into a page. It is interesting to observe that Old Face Italic lower-case letters of all types approach most nearly to the form of good modern handwriting. In it the connectors between one letter and another are plainly visible even though they are without any function, seeing that the letters are not joined to each other. Some of the letters are particularly graceful in form, notice- ably the f, g, p, v, w, and z. One characteristic of this fount is the harmony which exists between all the letters in it. v, w, x, y, and z, even though they are unlike any of the other letters in detail, yet are quite in harmony .with them. This is more than can be truthfully said of the same letters in most of the other lower-case founts, in which they seem nearer relations of the capitals than of their fellows in the lower-case. The fount Fig. 64, based upon Cheltenham Old Style, offers the printer alternate forms of several of the letters. The opportunity of occasionally introducing a more ornamental form of capital, if not overdone, gives a certain variety, not out of keeping, in the use of Italics. Such forms must of course be introduced sparingly ; too much of a good thing, no matter how good, is good for nothing. Such ornamental variations cease to be AjlBCD HIJKLM WXYZ a J^lmnopqrst CHELTENHAM OLD STYLE. 48 Point. H. W. Caslon & Co.. Ltd.. London, FIG. 64. 7 2 either ornaments or variations, if used upon every possible occasion. The relation between the thicks and thins of this fount is, of course, similar to that existing in the parent fount, and while this is right and appropriate in the parent, it is hardly so in the case of the Italic. The latter shows the marked influence of the reed pen, which renders very pronounced the difference between thicks and thins. An alternate form is a charac- teristic feature of some of the letters of this lower-case alphabet where h, w, and y are in duplicate. The similarity between the thicks and thins of the lower-case forms is as un- fortunate as it is in the capitals. On the whole this fount bears comparison badly with Old Face Italic, the pro- genitor of all italic founts. Whether it is because the eye through long usage has become accustomed to the Old Face Italic forms, or whether these original forms are so much more beautiful in themselves, are points upon which arguments could be based. It is certainly true that the Old Face Italic letters are more beautiful to look upon and more pleasant to read than those under review. This fount was issued along with Cheltenham Old Style Roman in 1900. PLATE XXV. ROSE, THISTLE, AND SPIRAL PANELS AND TAIL PIECES. C cccoo Ornaments by H. W. CASLON & Co., Lm , 82 and 83 Chiswell Street, London, E.C. PLATE XXVI. CHRISTMAS CARDS. MAY THE COMING YEAR BRING YOU BETTER THAN YOU EXPECT - OR DESERVE. Mr & Mrs JOHN BELL 27 ROSE ST., YORK. Christmas 1911. fmas 1911 Mr & Mrs J. Martin desire to extend their Best Wishes for this Christmas Season to all their friends. Manfield Boroughbridge Yorkshire. Witf) tfe best wisSes and tQe Kindest trjougrjts for a Jtappy Qfjristmas and a 5drigdt fiew year from Mr # Mrs ^eorge Gross 127 ffewington gardens fllanedester. ^December 25t6, Paper "Toned M.F. Printing" W. H. & A. RICHARDSON, Mill No. 91, Springwell Paper Mills, Jarrow-on-Tyne, England. PLATE XXVII. 1757 COTTRELL 1794 THORNE 1838 BESLEY 1849 FOX 1861 REED STEPHENSON, BLAKE & CO. AND SIR CHARLES REED & SONS, LETTER FOUNDERS, SHEFFIELD. 1877 SIR CHARLES REED & SONS PICTURE TO YOURSELF the mediaeval monk, sitting in the Scriptorium, laboriously adding letter to letter and page to page, and con- trast with this the modern method of printing a book. What a period of invention and industrial activity lies between the two ! Since 1757 the Stephensons, Blakes, Reeds, and their predecessors, have been intimately identified with this development. The prestige, energy, and progressiveness of the firm make Stephenson, Blake and Co. and Sir Charles Reed & Sons an even greater necessity to-day than their predecessors were to the printer of a century ago. STEPHENSON, BLAKE & CO. AND SIR CHARLES REED & SONS, WERE AMALGAMATED IN 1906. 1763 JACKSON 1792 CASLON 1819 BLAKE 1819 GARNETT 1830 STEPHENSON 1841 STEPHENSON BLAKE & CO. Type by STEPHENSON, BLAKE & Co. and Sir CHARLES REED & SONS, Sheffield, 18 point Baskerville Old Style ; 18 point Old Face No. 5 ; 8 point Winchester. . Paper "Glazed Amber" The Culler Mills Paper Co., Ltd., Mill No. 9, Peterculter, Aberdeenshire. PLATE XXVIII. LETTER HEADINGS. ENDERSON & MACNAUGHT Always in Slock : SPADES . TROWELS . LAW MOWERS . CANES . . RAFFIA AND Every Garden Requisite. 8 KNOX ST. In their Season : BULBS AND SEEDS . BEDDING OUT . PLANTS IN POTS AND Everything [or the Garden. GLASGOW. SMITH &- KEMP NURSERYMEN SEEDSMEN FLORISTS 725 GEORGE STREET EDINBURGH HAMPTON FURNISHING LEA ROAD BROTHERS IRONMONGERS SOUTHSEA Type by H. W. CASLON & Co., Ltd., London, and STEPHENSON, BLAKE & Co. and Sir CHARLES REED & SONS, Sheffield. Paper "Nechtan Imperial Linen" Extra Strong JOHN B. MACNAUGHTON, 74 York Street, Glasgow. PLATE XXIX. NECHTAN THIS WATERMARK IS A GUARANTEE of quality and strength, and the distinguishing mark of NECHTAN PAPER, which takes a clear and sharp impression from the type- writer and is equally satisfactory for use with the pen. The paper is stocked and boxed in both letter and legal sizes, as well as in Large Post 15, 18, 21 and 23 Ib. and Dbl. Large Post 30, 36, 42 and 46 Ib. FOUR THICKNESSES but only ONE QUALITY. Samples and Prices for the asking, from JOHN B. MACNAUGHTON, AGENT FOR ALL CLASSES OF PAPERS, 74 YORK ST., GLASGOW. Type by STEPHENSON, BLAKE & Co. and Sir CHARLES REED & SONS, Sheffield. Old Style No. 5 48 point and 18 point ; Windsor 14 point ; Italian Old Style Italic, 14 point. Paper " Nechtan Imperial Linen" Extra Strong JOHN B. MACNAUGHTON, 74 York Street, Glasgow. PLATE XXX. MENU AND INVITATION CARDS. nn nn MENU SOUP Clear Tomato FISH Baked Halibut Salmon JOINTS Roast Beef Roast Lamb SWEETS Cabinet Pudding Apple Tart Fruit Salad TEA COFFEE ICES TOASTS "THE KING" Proposed by THE CHAIRMAN "OUR GUESTS" Proposer Mr MASON Responder Mr MILLER "THE PRESIDENT" Proposer Mr BRAND Responder Mr ANDREW "THE LADIES" Proposer Mr MANDER Responder Mr PURVIS nn ua THE BIRMINGHAM ART SOCIETY TENTH ANNUAL DINNER. The President and Council request the honour of Company to Dinner in the Art Galleries, on the Evening of Tuesday, 24th October, at Six o'clock. R.S.V.P to Charles M. Swan. 25 Guelder Road, Birmingham. Paper " Glazed Amber" The Culler Mills Paper Co., Ltd., Mill No. 9, Peterculter, Aberdeenshire. PLATE XXXI. TITLE PAGE. THE LIFE OF THE GREEKS 6? ROMANS DESCRIBED FROM ANTIQUE MONUMENTS BY E. GUHL & W. KONER TRANSLATED FROM THE THIRD GERMAN EDITION BY F. HUEFFER LONDON : CHATTO & WINDUS, PICCADILLY Paper "Toned M.F. Printing" W. H. & A. RICHARDSON, Mill No. 91, Springwell Paper Mills, Jarrow-on-Tyne, England. PLATE XXXII. Eight ornaments composed of three Vine units repeated. Four ornaments composed of four Rose units repeated. Ornaments by H. W. CASLON & Co., Ltd., 82 and 83 Chiswell Street, London, E.C. ' 73 The capitals of Fig. 65 are more staid and sober in form than those of Cheltenham Italic. No alternate forms are included nor are any of the letters flourished. Even the Q, which is usually a lively letter iri Italic founts, is severe and self-contained. Few, if any, of the letters call for remark ; being undistinguished, they do not invite either condemnation or praise. A comparison between this lower- case fount and Cheltenham Italic, its parent, shows very few essential differ- ences indeed. It is in fact the last word in Italic founts in the direction of heavy respectable convention. When one compares it with Old Face Caslon Italic, one might be excused for thinking of the Cheltenham Heavy Italic as being the Old Face Italic grown to years of discretion and respectable ponderosity. All the sparkle and gaiety of youth have departed, and only conventional respectability remains. Fig. 66 is a very graceful fount of capitals, based upon Italian Old Style, and having the characteristics common to this family. Notice the almost equal breadth of thicks and thins, and the squarely finished serifs. Few of the letters call for special mention, except the Q, which has a very graceful tail ; the form of the whole letter suggests the Q of good modern penmanship. This lower-case Italic has a character ABCDE FGHIJK LMNOP QRSTU VWXYZ abode fg h ijklm nopqrst uvwxyz CHELTENHAM HEAVY ITALIC, 48 Point. H. W. Caslon & Co.. Ltd.. London. FIG. 65. ABCDEFGHI JKLMNOPQR STUVWXYZ& abcdefghijklmn o pq rstuww x yz LINING ITALIAN Old Style Italic, 24 Point. Stephenson, Blake & Co. and Sir Charles Reed & Sons, Sheffield. FIG. 66. letters includes a certain subtle spring, imparting to their forms a lively and sturdy appearance, which is pleasing and distinctive. In some of the forms there is a simplicity which suggests a breaking away from historic precedent, without impairing in any way the legibility of the letters. The absence of terminal serifs is evident in f, g, h, k, m, n, p, q, and r, while d and u retain these features. The z, like most other forms of the same character, seems out of harmony with the other letters, being simply a capital z made smaller. Vestiges of joinings are still evident in the h, i, k, 1, m, n, and t. The " and " shows clearly that it is a combination of e and t. This fount was first issued in 1 9.0 1 . 74 which is in harmony with the capitals of the same fount. The very slight difference between thicks and thins, evident throughout all the members of the family, is particularly noticeable here. The general character of the VEFGHI JJKLMM RftSTTU VWXYZ& abcdefghij klmnopqr r stu vw xy z WINCHESTER OLD STYLE ITALIC 36 Point. Stephenson, Blake & Co. and Sir Charles Reed & Sons, Sheffield. FIG. 67. 75 Winchester Old Style (Fig. 67) is a very graceful fount of Italics. The capitals consist of thirty-six sorts, ten of the letters being issued 'in two forms. The lower-case letters are very distinctive in their character, which is not quite similar to that of the capitals, being somewhat angular, as in v and w. The angularity of the curves is evident to a less degree in the other lower-case letters. The fount was first issued in 1909. De Vinne Italic (Fig. 68) is in all respects identical with De Vinne except in the slope of its members. Only one form each of capital and lower-case s A'BC'DEFG HIJKLMN OPQRSTU V W X Y Z abcdefghij klm nopq r stu VW xy z MORLAND ITALIC 30 Point. H. W. Caslon & Co.. Ltd.. London. ABCDBG HIJKLMN OPQRSTU VWXYZ abcdefghij klmnopqr stuvwxyz DE VINNE ITALIC 36 Point Stephenson, Blake & Co, and Sir Charles Reed & Sons. Sheffield. FIG. 68. FIG. 69. is however given. The fount was issued first in 1894. Morland Italic (Fig. 69) has all the general characteristics of its parent Morland. Some of the forms of the individual letters are very pleasing, especially the capitals Q, T, and D, and lower-case letters v, w, y, and z. Lower-case h is perhaps the least satis- factory of the whole series. The fount was issued about 1890. 7 6 r f 0f)t jf 1 1 m ORIGINAL BLACK, 48 Point H. W. Caslon & Co., Ltd.. London. FIG. 70. Writing of Gothic character was confined almost entirely to the nations of Northern Europe, and as a natural result we find that the types cut by Gutenberg of Metz, the first printer, were imitations of pen- written letters having this character. The principal feature of Gothic or Black Letter is the placing close together of the heavy straight upright members, while the white inter- spaces are often narrower than the members them- selves. Black Letter is seldom round in char- acter ; in its extreme form it consists of heavy members connected by short angular thick and thin joinings. Like Gothic Architecture, it never really found a home among the Southern nations, and any examples of it produced away from its native place, show the influence of the people among whom it found itself. 77 When written or printed of a large size, as in the work of the early founder printers, while yet their skill was insufficient to cut type of pearl or diamond size, it is readable, but as may be seen in Modern German Newspaper or book type, to the unaccustomed eye it may be said to be quite illegible. Its use in modern times in countries which for centuries have had the clear Roman type, is limited to initials, which are very often printed in red (rubricated). The capitals of this fount are never used alone, except by an occasional sign painter more daring than usual, whose inscription over the door of a shop usually leaves the passer-by as wise as ever as to the purport of the inscription. Its use by compositors should be rare, and only then of a size which is readable ; it is questionable if any fount under 1 2 point fulfils this condition. Black Letter capitals of the size illustrated (48 point) are effective as initials, especially if rubricated. As is well known, rubricated letters appear smaller and lighter than the same letters printed in black. The fount under consideration is very heavy, and is very distinctive in character ; it is well named " Original " Black. The letters are very wide in relation to their height, averaging over thirteen units in width to ten units in height. Some of the letters are not very individual, as, for instance, the K, which is very like an R, while I and J are identical. Black Letters, apart from their form, differ much from Roman ones. In the latter characters no unnecessary parts are introduced beyond serifs or beginnings and finishings ; in Black Letter or Gothic, on the other hand, and especially in capitals, many of the features are introduced for ornament only, thereby confounding the root forms. Thus in C, in the alphabet under consideration, one member only is necessary, while the three added ones tend to make the C less distinguishable. Other letters such as E, H, N, W, etc., contain unnecessary ornaments. The lower-case letters are extremely heavy, following the same pro- portions as the capitals. Both ascenders and descenders are very short. Notice the slope to the left of the ascender of d, a form evolved during the period when uncials were coming into use. The beginnings of the ascenders in b, h, k, and 1, and the terminations of the descenders of p and q 78 BLACK No. 4, 48 Point. H. W. Caslon & Co., Ltd., London. FIG. 71. are split, a form naturally produced by the use of a soft reed pen. Each letter is quite distinctive. One's attention is attracted by the peculiar ornamental pen-dash seen at the left sides of b, h, and k, and to the curious misshapen dash at the right hand of g. Notice that the interspaces are always smaller in area than any of the members ; this makes for illegibility. This fount was designed and engraved by Caslon I. about 1740. The letters in Fig. 71 are very harmonious in relation to one another, though the O, N, and V are apt to be confounded with one another. The form of these capitals shows evidence of the pen of the scribe, and all the different details are. such as would be naturally made by a reed pen skilfully used. The letters are " square " in character, i.e., they are composed mostly of upright heavy and thin members, while comparatively few curves are employed. In considering this fount also it is necessary to remember that some of the members are used to dis- tinguish the form, while others are added purely as ornament. For instance, none of the thin verticals contribute to the characteristic form of the letters, nor do the short sloping thin bars con- nected together by short thick verticals ; 79 these are added solely for the purpose of giving a sumptuous effect, and as has been noticed in the case of O, N, and V, confuse rather than differentiate the forms. A comparison of Black Letter capitals generally and Roman capitals reveals the fact that in the latter characters the type or root form is always evident. Thus, in A, B, C, D, E, etc., the serifs are added only by way of workmanlike finishings, while the thicks and thins in Roman letters are the natural forms produced by the use of a chisel-shaped point. The lower-case letters of this fount are extremely good and distinct in form. They suggest the source of their origin (the reed pen), while each is clear and legible, having no unnecessary parts. Black No. 4 was engraved and issued early in the igth century. This Black Letter face (Fig. 72) is quite distinctive in character and utterly unlike Black No. 4. Most of the principal members are curved, usually beginning thin, swelling gradually to the greatest thickness, and finishing thin. This imparts a distinctly flourished char- acter to the fount, thereby making it more ornamental, and rather less legible than Black No. 4. The individual letters are, however, more distinctive, no one being at all likely to be mis- taken for any other. The name Anglo-Saxon, by the way, is a misnomer, since Anglo-Saxon script has a character quite distinct from that of this face. ANGLO-SAXON 48 Point. H. W. Caslon & Co., Ltd., London. FIG. 72. H 33 O ">. a o OH .3 O O o e* I 1 I k ft ' 1 1 I 00 c -g x x X UJ H < j Du PLATE XXXIV. BOOK PLATES. EX LIBR1S ALISON LOTHIAN ROBERT CALLANDER YSE IS BOOK EX LIBRIS CH AS. A. SCOTT Ex Libris ALEXANDER FORBES THOMSON Paper "Cream Antique Laid" W. H. & A. RICHARDSON, Mill No. 91, Springwell Paper Mills, Jarrow-on-Tyne, England. PLATE XXXV. PROGRAMME COVERS. ORPHEUS MUSICAL SOCIETY SESSION 1911-1912 Birmingham Dramatic Club MEETS EVERY MONDAY EVENING FROM OCTOBER TILL MARCH AT SEVEN O'CLOCK FOR PRACTICE. :: :: ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION :: :: : : : : Payable at Opening of Session : : : : :: :: Ladies - 5 - Gentlemen - 7/6 :: :: Southern Fruit-Growers' Association PROGRAMME OF ARRANGEMENTS SESSION 1911-12 DERBY HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION Annual Spring Exhibition April 8 & 9, 1912. Paper "Dark Apricot Art" THE CULTER PAPER MILLS Co., LTD., Mill No, 9, Peterculter, Aberdeenshire. PLATE XXXVI. ROUGH COMPOSITION SKETCHES - TYPE ONLY. Paper" White Antique Wove" W. H. & A. RICHARDSON, Mill No. 91, Springwell Paper Mills, Jarrow-ou-Tyne, England. PLATE XXXVII. ROUGH COMPOSITION SKETCHES TYPE AND ORNAMENT. Paper " White Antique Wove " W. H. & A. RICHARDSON, Mill No. 91, Springwell Paper Mills, Jarrow-on-Tyne, England. PLATE XXXVIII. PATTERNS COMPOSED OF SHAMROCK TYPE UNITS. Five units employed in making Shamrock Patterns. Pattern composed of two units repeated. Pattern composed of one unit repeated. Pattern composed of three units repeated. Pattern composed of three units repeated. Pattern composed of one unit repeated. Ornaments by H. W. CASLON & Co., Ltd., 82 and 83 Chiswell Street, London, E.G. Paper "Dark Apricot Art" The Culler Paper Mills Co., Ltd., Mill No. 9, Peterculter, Aberdeenshire. PLATE XXXIX. INITIALS. Paper " Cream Antique Laid" W. H. & A. RICHARDSON, Mil] No. 91, Springwell Paper Mills, Jarrow-on-Tyne, England. PLATE XL. IIV/-\^V*;Q*JUtMUiv5Ul MUjvlUKaUaVBUIl LJ*<;>*LJWJLJVLJ U*vUlw JUvU LJ*V*UkvlLJ*V**LJ