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Roots of the Classical Roman Capitals [Paul Shaw]

In his book, The Eternal Letter (MIT Press, 2015), Paul Shaw gives a useful timeline for the roots of the classical roman capitals:

• THE ROOTS OF THE CLASSICAL ROMAN CAPITALS
• 770 BC First evidence of Greek writing in Italy.
• 750 BC First Etruscan inscriptions.
• 740 BC The Dipylon inscription (Athens) and the Nestor Cup (Pithekoussai); earliest known Greek inscriptions in Greece.
• 753 BC Legendary founding of Rome by Romulus; though ancient sources give dates ranging from
• 814 BC to 729 BC.
• 625-600 BC Tita inscription (Gabii) and Vendia inscription (Rome?); pottery with the first examples of epigraphic Latin letters.
• 580-570 Be Duenos vase inscription (Rome); yet to be deciphered.
• 575-550 BC Forum Cippus, Roman Forum; oldest extant Latin inscription in stone; written in boustrephedon (bidirectional) style.
• 550-525 BC Castor and Pollux dedicatory inscription (Lavinium) in Latinized Greek.
• 550-500 BC Lapis Niger inscription (Rome); written in boustrephedon style.
• 525-500 BC Tufa inscription (Tivoli); written in serpentine style of the Sabines.
• 510 BC Beginning of Roman Republic and of Roman expansion in Italy.
• 500 BC Lapis Satricanus inscription (Satricum) in Archaic Latin; important for comparative Indo-European grammar.
• Before c. 500 BC Latin inscriptions show considerable diversity of letterforms and direction of writing. Most writing is left to right in the late 7th c. BC but right to left in the 6th c. BC.
• 5th C. BC Modular Greek inscriptions (stoichedon) using chisel width as stroke length.
• 312 BC Construction of the Appian Way.
• 334 Be Dedication of the Temple of Athena Polias (Priene) by Alexander the Great; first Greek inscription with serifs.
• Late 4th c. BC Late 4th c. BC Ardea Krater (now in Museo Nazionale Romano, Terme di Diocleziano) with overpainted inscription of uncertain interpretation.
• 264 BC First Punic War between Rome and Carthage begins.
• After 259 BC Epitaph (in Musei Vaticani) of Lucius Cornelius Scipio (consul of Rome and grandfather of Scipio Africanus) in sans serif capitals.
• 250 BC According to Plutarch, letter G created by Spurius Carvilius Ruga, founder of the first private elementary school in Rome; Roman alphabet fixed at 21 letters.
• 221 BC Hannibal begins conquest of Hispania (Spain).
• 218-203 BC Second Punic War. Scipio Africanus defeats Hannibal at Zama (now Sers, Tunisia).
• 167 BC Early Latin inscription with serifs (Delphi; now in Musei Vaticani).
• 1st C. BC Temple of Vesta (Tivoli) inscription.
• 73-71 BC Slave revolt led by Spartacus.
• 50 BC Tomb of Publius Gessius family inscription (Viterbo; now in Museum of Fine Arts, Boston). Arco
• 50 BC dei Gavi (Verona) built by architect Vitruvius.
• 50-20 BC Tomb of Marcus Vergilius Eurysaces (the Baker's Tomb) (Rome).
• 44 BC Julius Caesar assassinated.
• 44-30 BC Roman civil wars.
• 43 BC First extant Roman inscription in "Imperial" style
• 32-30 BC Final War of the Roman Republic; Octavian defeats Antony and Cleopatra.
• 28 BC Tomb of Caecelia Metella (via Appia, Rome).
• 27 BC Octavian becomes Caesar Augustus, first Roman Emperor.
• 17 BC Theatre of Marcellus (Rome).
• 27 BC -14 AD Reign of Augustus.
• 14 AD Augustus dies.
• 25 Pantheon built by Agrippa.
• 41-54 Reign of Claudius. Rome invades Britain. Claudius introduces three new letters to the alphabet, but they do not survive his reign.
• 51 Arch of Claudius dedicated.
• 69-79 Reign of Vespasiano.
• 79-81 Reign of Titus. Pompeii and Herculanum destroyed by eruption of Mt. Vesuvius.
• 79 Arch of Titus dedicated; Colosseum completed.
• 98-117 Reign of Trajan.
• 106 Trajan defeats Dacians.
• 112 Trajan Forum dedicated.
• 113 Trajan column dedicated along with inscription.
• 117-138 Reign of Hadrian.
• 122 Hadrian's Wall built across northern Britain.
• 130 Wroxeter inscription (Forum Viroconium, Britannia---England).
• 161-180 Reign of Marcus Aurelius.
• 2nd c. Tomb of family of Sextus Pomponius (via Appia, Rome).
• 193-211 Reign of Septimius Severus; Roman Empire a military dictatorship.
• 203 Arch of Septimius Severus dedicated.
• 311-337 Reign of Constantine I.
• 313 Edict of Milan ends persecution of Christians.
• 315 Arch of Constantine dedicated.
• 359 Constantinople becomes the capital of the Roman Empire.
• 366-384 Papacy of Damasus; commissioned inscriptions, carved by Furius Dionysius Philocalus, honoring Christian martyrs.
• 395 Roman Empire divided by Theodosius into Eastern and Western Empires.
• 4th c. Vatican Virgil (Vat. lat. 3225); written in capitalis rustica (rustics).
• 4th c. Codex Augusteus (Georgics of Virgil) (Vat. lat. 3256); written in capitalis quadrata (square capitals).
• 476 Fall of Roman Empire in the West; Romulus Augustulus deposed by Odoacer.
• 5th c. Codex Sangallensis (works of Virgil) (St. Gall, Stiftsbibliothek 1394); written in capitalis quadrata (square capitals).
• THE REJUVENATION OF THE CLASSICAL ROMAN CAPITAL
• 795 Epitaph of Pope Hadrian I commissioned by Charlemagne.
• 800 Charlemagne crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Leo III.
• 830-834 Latin Vulgate Bible (Abbey of St. Martin, Tours; now Munich, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek CLM 12741); Carolingian versals.
• 834-843 Moutier-Grandval Bible (Tours, now British Library, Add. MS. 10456); written in Carolingian minuscules.
• 871-877 Second Bible of Charles the Bald (Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. Lat. 2); Carolingian versals with classical Roman proportions.
• 963-984 Benedictional of Aethelwold; its versals are the basis for Adobe Charlemagne typeface.
• Early 11th c. The Trinity Gospels (Trinity College, Cambridge, Ms. B.10.4 (215).
• THE REDISCOVERY OF THE CLASSICAL ROMAN CAPITAL
• 1403 Poggio sent classical inscriptions from Rome to Coluccio Salutati in Florence.
• 1409 Sylloge Signorilliana; first collection of classical Roman inscriptions.
• 1412-1416 Statue of John the Baptist (Orsanmichele, Florence) by Ghiberti; inscription with humanist majuscules.
• 1417-1431 Revival of Rome under papacy of Martin V.
• 1424 First visit of Ciriaco di Ancona to Rome to study inscriptions.
• 1425 Tomb of anti-Pope John XXIII (Battistero, Florence) by Donatello and Michelozzo.
• 1431-1437 Cantoria (Florence) by Luca della Robbia; inscription is basis for Donatello typeface.
• 1432-1433 Second visit of Ciriaco di Ancona to Rome to study inscriptions.
• 1439-1440 Shrine of St. Zenobius (S. Lorenzo, Florence) by Ghiberti; inscription in lettere antiche.
• 1440 Giovanni Marcanova begins collecting epigraphs.
• 1447-1452 Tempio Malatestiano (Rimini) by Alberti with monumental inscription on facade (1453).
• 1447-1455 Continued revival of Rome under papacy of Nicholas V.
• 1449-1452 Funerary monument to Leonardo Bruni (S. Croce, Florence) by Bernardo Rossellino.
• 1450 Chronicle of Eusebius (Biblioteca Marciana, Lat. IX.1 = 3496) by Biagio di Saraceno; first manuscript with epigraphic capitals.
• 1453 Fresco of St. James (Ovetari Chapel, Padua) with inscriptions in epigraphic capitals.
• 1453 Constantinople sacked by Ottoman Turks; end of Byzantine Empire (eastern portion of Roman Empire).
• 1455 Tomb of Pope Nicholas V (Grotte Vaticane).
• 1455 42-line Bible completed by Johannes Gutenberg.
• 1453 First manuscript by Paduan scribe Bartolomeo Sanvito.
• 1459 Strabo Geographia (Bibliotheque Municipale, Albi, MS 77) with epigraphic initials.
• 1460 Alphabetum Romanum (Vat. lat. 6852) by Felice Feliciano; first constructed alphabet.
• 1460 Livy (Biblioteca Nazionale e Universitaria di Torino, J.II.5) by Sanvito; one of first manuscripts with a monumental frontispiece.
• 1464 Felice Feliciano, Mantegna, Samuele da Tradate and Giovanni Antenori search for Roman inscriptions near Lake Garda.
• 1465 Second Marcanova recension of collection of epigraphs completed.
• 1465 Tomb of Cardinal Ludovico d'Albret (S. Maria in Aracoeli, Rome) by Andrea Bregno.
• 1467 Cappella Rucellai (Florence) by Alberti.
• 1468 Pescheria (Verona) inscription attributed to Feliciano.
• 1468-1476 House of Lorenzo Manilio (Rome) with facade incorporating mix of antique and imitation antique inscriptions.
• 1470 Facade inscription on S. Maria Novella (Florence) by Alberti.
• 1470 Roman typeface by Nicholas Jenson.
• 1471-1484 Papacy of Sixtus IV led urban revival of Rome; associated with revival of Roman capitals.
• 1471 Capitoline Museum established by Pope Sixtus IV.
• 1473 Tomb of Cardinal Niccole Forteguerri (S. Cecilia in Trastevere, Rome) by Andrea Bregno and Mino da Fiesole.
• 1475 Ponte Sisto inscriptions attributed to Sanvito.
• 1470s Pomponio Leto began collecting epigraphs.
• 1475-1477 Latin and Greek libraries created at Vatican.
• 1478 1478 First redaction of Fra Gioconda silloge.
• 1479-1483 Libellus Inscriptionum printed by Jacopo Zaccaria.
• 1480 Constructed alphabet by Chicago Anonymous.
• 1480 Codice Barberiniano (Barb. Lat. 4424) by Giuliano Sangallo; contains drawings of Roman inscriptions and monuments.
• 1482 Inscription in courtyard of Palazzo Ducale, Urbino.
• 1483 Constructed alphabet by Damiano Da Moylle.
• 1484-1499 Construction of the Cancelleria (Rome).
• 1490-1516 Taccuino Senese di Giuliano Sangallo (Biblioteca Comunale degli Intronati, S.IV.8); includes complete alphabet of Roman capitals.
• 1491-1509 Codex Escurialensis (Codex 28.11.12) by Domenico Ghirlandaio; includes drawings of Tomb of Cecelia Metella, Trajan's Column and alphabet of Roman capitals.
• THE REJUVENATION OF THE CLASSICAL ROMAN CAPITAL
• 1509 DiVina Proportione by Luca Pacioli published in Venice; contains alphabet of constructed Roman capitals.
• 1517 Opera del mondo defare le littere maiuscole antique by Francesco Torniello.
• 1523 Il Modo Temperare de le Penne by Ludovico degli Arrighi da Vicenza.
• 1524 Lo presente libro Insegna La Vera arte by Giovannantonio Tagliente.
• 1525 Vnderweysung der Messung [Of the lust Shaping of Letters] by Albrecht Düer.
• ~1527 Luminario by Giovambaptista Verini; alphabet of constructed Roman capitals.
• 1529 Champ Fleury by Geoffroy Tory; contains alphabet of constructed Roman capitals.
• ~1530 First roman typeface by Claude Garamont.
• 1540 Libro nuovo d'imparare a scrivere by Giovambattista Palatino.
• 1540 On Antiquities by Sebastiano Serlio, second of his "Seven Books."
• 1548 Un novo modo d'insegnare a scrivere by Vespasiano Amphiareo.
• 1554 Sette Alphabeti di uarie lettere by Ferdinando Ruano.
• 1560 Essemplare di piu sorti lettere by Giovanni Francesco Cresci.
• 1570 II Perfetto Scrittore by Giovanni Francesco Cresci.
• 1535-1589 Papacy of Sixtus V; responsible for the systematization of Rome with the creation of new arteries and plazas marked by the erection of obelisks on Roman bases; and the restoration of the Acqua Alessandrina (renamed Acqua Felice, 1 586).
• 1587 Alphabeto Delle Maiuscole Antiche Rornane by Luca Horfei da Fano.
• 1589 Varie iscrittioni del santiss.... by Luca Horfei da Fano; designs for program of graphic exposition to accompany urban restoration under Sixtus V.
• 1638 De Caratteri by Leopardo Antonozzi.
• THE DECLINE OF THE CLASSICAL ROMAN CAPITAL
• 1692-1745 Romain du Roi; first designed typeface; first printed appearance 1702.
• 1725 First typeface by William Caslon.
• 1738 Excavations of Herculanum begun.
• 1748 Excavations of Pompeii begun.
• 1754 John Baskerville type specimen.
• ~1760-1840 Industrial Revolution.
• 1766 Fry's Baskerville cut by Isaac Moore.
• 1784 First type by Firmin Didot.
• 1788 Serie di maiuscole by Giambattista Bodoni.
• 1789 French Revolution.
• 1804-1815 Napoleon Emperor of the French.
• 1818 Manuale Tipografico by Giambattista Bodoni; printed posthumously.
• THE RESURRECTION OF THE CLASSICAL ROMAN CAPITAL
• 1846 Lyons Titling (Caractères Augustaux) by Louis Perrin; revived antique Roman capitals.
• 1872 Cast of base of Trajan's Column made for Victoria & Albert Museum.
• 1894 The American School of Architecture in Rome (the American Academy in Rome, after 1897) opened; championed by architect Charles Follen McKim.
• 1895 Boston Public Library (McKirn, Mead and White) completed.
• 1906 Writing & Illuminating, & Lettering by Edward Johnston published.
• 1906 Eric Gill visits Rome for first time.
• 1911 Forum Title by Frederic W. Goudy.
• 1914 Centaur by Bruce Rogers. (Released by Monotype, 1929.)
• 1914-1918 World War I.
• 1916 Goudy Old Style (American Type Founders) by Frederic W. Goudy.
• 1918 Hadriano Title by Frederic W. Goudy.
• 1919 Bauhaus (Weimar) opened.
• 1922 Fascist March on Rome; Mussolini become prime minister of Italy.
• 1927 Futura (Bauer) by Paul Renner.
• 1927 Kabel (Klingspor) by Rudolf Koch; promotional material included constructed capital diagrams.
• 1927 John Stevens Shop (est. 1705) purchased by John Howard Benson.
• 1927 Open Capitals (Enschedé) by Jan van Krimpen.
• 1928 Die neue Typographie [The New Typography] by Ian Tschichold published.
• 1925-1930 Perpetua (Monotype) by Eric Gill.
• 1930 Trajan Title by Frederic W. Goudy.
• 1931 Four Gospels printed by Golden Cockerel Press; with type, illustrations, lettering, and ornaments by Eric Gill.
• 1933 Bauhaus (Weimar) closed by the Nazis.
• 1934 Felix Titling (Monotype) based on constructed capitals of Felice Feliciano.
• 1935-1939 First trip to Rome by Father Edward M. Catich.
• 1936 David Kindersley sets up as independent lettercarver.
• 1937 Schneidler Initials [Bauer Text] (Bauer) by F. H. E. Schneidler.
• 1938 Roman Lettering by L.C. Evetts published.
• 1938-1940 Res Gestae Divi Augusti inscribed on wall of the building housing the Ara Pacis (Rome) as part of Fascist celebration of Augustan Bimillenary; letters based on Trajan capitals.
• 1939 Palazzo degli Uffici dellnte'E Autonomo (Rome) completed; facade bears inscription announcing Terza Roma; bas relief depicts Mussolini as direct descendent of Roman consuls and emperors
• 1939-1945 World War II.
• 1943 Palazzo della Civilita Italiana (the Square Colosseum) (Rome) completed.
• 1946 Jan van Krimpen designed numeral stamps for the Dutch post office.
• 1950 Michelangelo (Stempel) by Hermann Zapf. Sistina (Stempel) by Hermann Zapf.
• 1951 Augustea (Nebiolo) by Alessandro Butti and Aldo Novarese.
• 1951 Columna (Bauer) by Max Caflisch.
• 1955 Rhythm and Proportion in Lettering by Walter Kaech published.
• 1956 National Monument on the Dam square (Amsterdam) with inscription designed by Jan van Krimpen.
• 1957 Castellar (Monotype) by John Peters.
• 1957 Univers (Deberny & Peignot) by Adrian Frutiger.
• 1957 Neue Haas Grotesk (Haas) [later Helvetica (Stempel)] by Max Miedinger and Eduard Hoffmann.
• 1958 Optima (Stempel) by Hermann Zapf.
• 1960s David Kindersley designs alphabet for Cambridge, England street signs; modeled on classical Roman capitals.
• 1961 John E. Benson takes over the John Stevens Shop.
• 1961 Letters Redrawn from the Trajan Column in Rome by Father Edward M. Catich published.
• 1964 John F. Kennedy Memorial, Arlington Cemetery carved by John E. Benson and John Hegnauer.
• 1964 Father Edward M. Catich makes polyester cast of Trajan inscription.
• 1957 Printing and the Mind of Man catalogue (based on London exhibition, 1963) with title page engraved by Reynolds Stone.
• 1968 The Origins of the Serif by Father Edward M. Catich published.
• 1976 Lida Lopes Cardozo begins collaboration with David Kindersley; eventually becomes partner in Cardozo Kindersley Workshop.
• 1982 A Constructed Roman Alphabet by David Lance Goines published.
• 1989 Lithos, Trajan, and Charlemagne (Adobe) by Carol Twombly.
• 1991 Arrus (Bitstream) by Richard Lipton.
• 1993 Mantinia (Carter & Cone) by Matthew Carter; based on the engraved lettering of Mantegna.
• 1993 Nicholas Benson takes over ownership of the John Stevens Shop.
• 1994 Penunbra (Adobe) by Lance Hidy
• 1996 Cresci, Pontif, and Pietra (LetterPerfect) by Garrett Boge.
• 1997 Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial, National Mall, carved by John E. Benson.
• 1998 Waters Titling (Adobe) by Julian Waters.
• 1999 Capitolium by Gerard Unger; inspired by capitals by Cresci. Requiem (Hoefler & Frere-Jones) by Jonathan Hoefler, based on capitals by Arrighi.
• 2003 Senatus (Berthold) by Werner Schneider.
• 2004 National World War II Memorial, National Mall, carved by Nicholas Benson.
• 2011 Stevens Titling (Linotype) by John Stevens and Ryuichi Tateno.
• 2012 Trajan Pro 3 and Trajan Sans (Adobe) by Robert Slimbach. The original Trajan Sans is from 1989.

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